Joseph, … Schild et al. — "Plasmas: A Fourth Domain of Life? RNA, DNA, Consciousness…" (J. Modern Physics, 2025) — FULL TEXT

Source: Rhawn Joseph, Richard A. Armstrong, Konrad Wolowski, Mustafa Abu Safa, Mark Dunne, Rosanna R. del Gaudio, Rudolph Schild (Harvard-Smithsonian), Journal of Modern Physics 16(9):1269-1387 (2025). DOI: 10.4236/jmp.2025.169066. PDF: https://www.scirp.org/pdf/jmp_7505486.pdf
Captured: 2026-06-09, full verbatim (119 pp; PDF extraction). Provenance only; analysis on ../../topics/plasmoids-and-plasma-life.
What this is: the companion paper — argues dusty plasmas have cell membranes/nuclei, "mutual awareness," and generated RNA→DNA and consciousness (a proposed "fourth domain of life"), with a chi-square "statistical analysis" of NASA footage. Same author group (lead Rhawn Joseph; Rudolph Schild, Harvard-Smithsonian) and SCIRP Journal of Modern Physics venue as the 2024 paper; cited as backing for "sentient plasmoid life." Critical review: ../../queries/2026-06-10-are-the-schild-plasmoid-life-papers-credible · cited by ../reddit/reddit-schild-sentient-plasmoids-1u1lf9n.

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Journal of Modern Physics, 2025, 16(9), 1269-1387
https://www.scirp.org/journal/jmp
ISSN Online: 2153-120X
ISSN Print: 2153-1196

DOI: 10.4236/jmp.2025.169066 Sep. 18, 2025
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Plasmas: A Fourth Domain of Life? RNA, DNA,
Consciousness and Statistical Analysis of
“Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena”
in the Thermosphere
Rhawn Joseph1, Richard A. Armstrong2*, Konrad Wolowski3, Mustafa Abu Safa4,
Mark Dunne2, Rosanna R. del Gaudio5, Rudolph Schild6
1Astrobiology Research Center, California, CA, USA
2Department of Vision Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham, UK
3Polish Academy of Sciences, W. Szafer Institute of Botany, Kraków, Poland
4Department of Applied Physics, Palestine Polytechnic University, Hebron, Palestine
5Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
6Center for Astrophysics, Harvard-Smithsonian, Cambridge, MA, USA

Abstract
The data presented here, combined with our previous reports, challenge all
conceptions of what constitutes “life,” the origins of life, consciousness, and
UAP. Self-illuminated plasmas (AKA plasmoids/UAP), with a nucleus and
double cellular layers, engage in complex behaviors in the thermosphere and
display multiple forms of communication, mutual awareness, purposeful con-
tact-seeking, and cellular-mitosis and ejection-secretion of interactive plas-
moid-clouds and additional plasmoids that contact other plasmas. Plasmas
communicate by signaling via oscillations in size and illumination and turn,
follow, target and collide, merge or pierce other plasmas, whereas yet others
form thick glowing plasma bridges linking multiple plasmoids together; rem-
iniscent of colonies of algae and colliding galaxies and release glowing plas-
matic clouds in their wake; reminiscent of a comet’s tail; and upon descending
into the lower atmosphere are perceived as UAP/UFOs. Dusty plasmas display
mutual awareness, engage in life-like, intelligent behavior, have cellular mem-
branes and a nucleus, and may have generated RNA then DNA via the assim-
ilation of all necessary elements available in space; and fashioned a plasma ge-
nome via the incorporation of the genomes of bacteria, algae, fungi, lichens,
etc. propelled into the upper atmosphere by bolides, hurricanes and powerful
winds; and as such have biological attributes and are alive. Plasmas represent
How to cite this paper: Joseph, R., Arm-
strong, R.A., Wolowski, K., Safa, M.A.,
Dunne, M., del Gaudio, R.R. and Schild, R.
(2025) Plasmas: A Fourth Domain of Life?
RNA, DNA, Consciousness and Statistical
Analysis of “Unidentified Anomalous Phe-
nomena” in the Thermosphere. Journal of
Modern Physics, 16, 1269-1387.
https://doi.org/10.4236/jmp.2025.169066
Received: November 5, 2024
Accepted: September 15, 2025
Published: September 18, 2025
Copyright © 2025 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Open Access

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a fourth state of matter, and it is believed 99% of the universe consists of
plasma in various states and which repeat patterns from the micro to macro-
levels. Statistical analysis supports all hypotheses and quantifies differential
and unique morphological and behavioral characteristics of plasmoids that
were filmed by NASA space shuttle missions over 250 Km above Earth. Mor-
phological and behavioral analyses were made of 91 consecutive freeze-frames
(T1 - T91) taken every 0.2 s. In addition to distinct and diverse forms of mor-
phology, it was determined that plasmas accelerate to exceptional velocities
(up to 35.6 Km∙s−1), and make abrupt 163˚ turns in trajectory, turn, follow and
appear aware of each other. In addition to morphology, four “collision events”
were analyzed in detail and all plasmas altered velocity, trajectory, and/or
shape either before, during, or after the collision event. Additional analysis
revealed what resembles networks and chains of filamentary plasmatic mag-
netic flux ropes and cables in the thermosphere. These vast plasma macro-
tubules and neural networks may be producing plasmoid entities. Ganglia-
neural networks may have also been detected in some plasmoid specimens.
Plasmaoid have electrical and electromagnetic properties similar to the brain.
Macro-tubule plasma flux capable may serve similar functions as micro-tu-
bules, and coupled with behavioral data, support the hypothesis that plas-
mas/plasmoids are alive and have consciousness.

Keywords
Quantum Physics, Entanglement, Electric Universe, Plasma Physics, Origins
of Life, Consciousness, Electric Universe, Electrical Origins of Life,
Electromagnetic Nervous System, Horizontal Gene Transfer, Properties of
Life

1. Introduction
   The data presented here, combined with our previous reports, challenge all con-
   ceptions of what constitutes “life,” the origins of life, consciousness, and Uniden-
   tified Anomalous Phenomena [1]-[5]. We provide an extensive review of the sci-
   entific literature and present pictorial evidence and the results of two major sta-
   tistical studies in support, including detailed quantitative statistical analysis of
   Plasmoid behavior and morphology.
   Glowing, pulsating, self-illuminated plasmas in the thermosphere engage in
   complex behaviors and interactions that appear life-like and purposeful (Figures
   1-75). These interactions include what appears to be communicative signaling via
   oscillations in size and illumination, with some pulsating relatively rapidly as they
   approach, and others relatively slowly after they pass other plasmas.
   These plasmas are multi-layered electromagnetic cellular entities, up to several
   Km in size and have been repeatedly observed by NASA space shuttle crews and
   captured on film by 10 different space shuttle missions engaging in gravity-defy-
   ing maneuvers and complex behaviors, and approaching and lingering near the

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MIR International Space station and a number of space shuttles including appear-
ing outside windows and upsetting the crews [1]-[5]. Plasmoids that descend into
the lower atmosphere are likely perceived as UAP/UFOs [2].
Unfortunately, due to the policies of NASA, which added layers of obscuring
“noise” to all nighttime film footage and would turn off or redirect cameras when
these entities came into view [3], it is impossible to make a precise identification
of these specimens. Therefore, we have now twice recommended the launching of
an “Alien Hunter Satellite” designed to attract, film, capture and conduct detailed
analyses of plasmoids in the thermosphere [1] [2]. Until extensive studies are con-
ducted, and based on the available data, we have chosen to refer to these entities
as “plasmas”, “dusty plasmas”, “plasmoids” and “Unidentified Anomalous Phe-
nomenon.”
As detailed dusty plasmas may have provided the internal environment for the
genesis of RNA then DNA and the origins of life via the assimilation of all the
necessary elements which are available in space; and may have fashioned a plasma
genome via the incorporation of the genomes of bacteria, algae, fungi, lichens, etc.
propelled into the upper atmosphere by bolides, hurricanes and powerful winds.
We also hypothesize that plasmas engage in complex behavior because they are
alive and sentient and represent a fourth domain of life. A review of the relevant
scientific literature and a quantitative analyses of plasmoid behavior, size, move-
ment, velocity, and contact seeking supports these hypotheses.
We also report the discovery of what resembles extensive networks of plasmodic
magnetic flux tubes, ropes and cables in the thermosphere that, to speculate, may
be giving birth to or providing energy to plasmoids (Figure 59 & Figure 60); and
which may function similarly to a virtual electromagnetic nervous system.
2. Electromagnetic Extremophiles: “Hunters”, “Grazers”,
“Floaters”, “Thunderstorm Divers”
Some plasmas appear to behave as if they are swimming in water, or rather, in a
sea of electricity [6]-[15]. It has also been noted that plasmas in the thermosphere,
and their behaviors and multi-plasma cellular composition, bear similarities to
water dwelling algae, diatoms and dinoflagellates [3] [5] [16].
Carl Sagan [17] hypothesized that algae-like organisms, kilometers in size are
dwelling in the atmospheric seas of Jupiter. He proposed four kinds of organisms:
“primary photosynthetic autotrophs (“sinkers”); larger autotrophs or hetero-
trophs (“floaters”); organisms that seek out others (“hunters”), and organisms that
live at almost pyrolytic depths (“scavengers”).” Sagan concluded “that ecological
niches for sinkers, floaters, and hunters appear to exist in the Jovian atmosphere.”
It has been proposed that plasmas of the thermosphere could be classified as
“Hunters”, “Grazers”, and “Floaters” [16] whereas “Sinkers” could be likened to
“Thunderstorm Divers” that descend into thunderstorms and the lower atmosphere
where they are likely to be classified as UAP/UFOs [1] [2]. As documented here: plas-
mas in the thermosphere engage in intersections similar to algae (Figures 28-30).

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Figure 1. Plasmoids of the thermosphere may include different species as they have a variety of shapes and sizes and engage in
different behaviors.

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Figure 2. Hundreds of cone- and cloud-shaped glowing plasmas with multiple layers and an internal nucleus filmed congregating
200 miles above Earth. Film by STS-80. Many form electromagnetic-plasma bridges linking multiple plasmoids. (Bottom). Processed
via Fotor software designed to detect and colorize differences in pixel gray scales.

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Figure 3. Two glowing shape-shifting plasmoids (near a thunderstorm), one of which (far right) becomes elongated. A third plas-
moid emerges from the plasma on the right which makes contact with the plasmoid on the far left, and then detaches, such that two
plasmoids become three. (See also Figure 19).

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Figure 4. Freeze frames from a film by STS 80, the crew of which misidentified three different plasmas as the MIR International
Space Station and then NASA to turned off the Camera. As depicted here: a single plasma contacts first one, then changes into an
arc-like direction and contacts three additional plasmas in sequence. These images are reminiscent of colliding galaxies, binary stars,
and interactions with pulsars. (Top Figure): The “cone” shape of some of the larger plasmas may be due to a phenomenon known
as magnetic reconnection, where the magnetic fields form a neutral cone-shaped “saddle point.” Because these large plasmoids are
oriented toward the sun, the solar magnetic field passes all around them. Consider the magnetosphere, which has a toroidal cone
shape due to bending and curving of its magnetic field; the degree of curvature is proportional to the strength of the current.

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Figure 5. Three different plasmoids target and contact the plasma circled in green. Note plasma dust trail left in the wake of the last
colliding plasmoid (white arrows). Freeze frames from STS 75 film.

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Figure 6. A. plasmoid leaves a plasma-cloud trail after piercing plasma at the bottom, then arcs toward the right and contacts the
donut-shaped plasma and again alters its direction of trajectory and leaving a plasma trail in its wake. From STS 75.

Figure 7. The plasma circled in red waxes and wanes in size as it approaches the plasma circled in white. Often, plasmas will move
into a position where they wait to be intersected by another plasmoid as documented in these “freeze frames” from STS 75 film
footage. The final image depicts internal features resulting from the merging of these two plasmoids (processed by Fotor software
to identify differences in pixel gray scales.

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Figure 8. Examples of how plasmoids will suddenly materialize and grow in size. In some instances, they appear to emerge from a
black-hole in spacetime; though it is equally possible they were in a dark mode and began self-illuminating. Often, but not always,
they assume a cone shape; and like all con-shaped plasmas, they are oriented toward the sun, or where the sun will appear. This may
be due to magnetic reconnection, where the magnetic fields form a neutral cone-shaped “saddle point” as the solar magnetic field
passes all around then.

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Figure 9. Serpentine plasmoid materializing and growing in size as it “snakes” toward a thunderstorm. Filmed by STS 80.

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Figure 10. Serpentine Hunter targets, strikes, and pierces numerous plasmas (see Figure 11 & Figure 12), including a cone-shaped
plasmoid that materialized, grew in size and maneuvered into a location making it a target (see Figure 13).

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Figure 11. Serpentine plasmoid (depicted in Figure 10, Figure 12, Figure 14) continues to snake through the thermosphere, chang-
ing its trajectory-orientation, its “tail” waxing and waning in length, as it hunts and strikes and pierces numerous plasmoids, in-
cluding a cone-shaped plasmoid that materialized, grew in size and maneuvered into a location making it a target (see Figure 13).

Figure 12. Cloud-like serpentine plasmoid (depicted in Figure 10, Figure 11, Figure 13 & Figure 14) waxing and waning in length,
and shedding cloud-like plasmoids as it hunts.

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Figure 13. Plasmoid suddenly materializes, merges with another plasmoid, increases in size and navigates into the direct path of a
serpentine Hunter (see Figures 10-12, Figure 14) and which is accompanied by another plasmoid that hunts in parallel. Filmed by
STS 80.

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Figure 14. Plasmoid that had suddenly materialized and grew in size (Figure 13), maneuvered into the direct path of a serpentine
Hunter (see Figures 10-13) where it hovered in place until struck and pierced.

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Figure 15. Collisions and streams of cloudy particles in the wake of two approaching plasmas as they collide and merge. Filmed by
STS 75. (Continued in Figure 16): After they collide and pierce each other, both shed clouds of plasma in their wake, a phenomenon
reminiscent of comets as they soar through the heavens.

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Figure 16. STS 75. Complex behavior and interactions including secreting/ejecting clouds of plasmas before and after colliding and
piercing each other (see Figure 15). Freeze frames from STS 75 film.

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Figure 17. Cloud and conical shaped plasmoids in the thermosphere approaching a violent thunderstorm raging 200 miles below.
Filmed by STS 96.

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3. Plasma Mitosis, Replication, Reproduction, Shape-Shifting,
   and Complex Communicative Behaviors
   It has been documented [1]-[5] that these self-illuminated plasmas of the thermo-
   sphere have a variety of shapes, e.g. cloud, cone, ring, donut, serpentine (Figure
   1), oscillate in size and illumination (Figure 8, Figures 23-27), will suddenly ma-
   terialize and grow in size (Figure 8, Figure 9, Figure 13 speed up and slow down
   and commonly make gradual or sudden and rapid 45, 90, 180 degree turns (Figure

22. and will follow or collide or pierce other plasmas (Figures 3-7, Figures 11-
    13); the collisions often associated with the release of Km in length cometary-like
    plasma trails just prior to or following collisions (Figures 13-16).
    Some plasmas in the thermosphere also consist of conglomerates of multiple
    plasmas (Figure 28); and in actions reminiscent of cellular mitosis, some will di-
    vide and replicate or secrete-eject plasmoids that follow, confront, contact and
    interact with other plasmas (Figure 3). In addition, some plasma merge with
    and/or form networks of plasma links with other plasmas (Figures 2, Figure 19,
    Figure 29); reminiscent of algae (Figure 28, Figure 30) as well as binary stars and
    colliding galaxies; “collisionality” being a common plasma behavior in the ther-
    mosphere (Figures 5-7, Figures 10-16). Hence, these observations may be exam-
    ples of how patterns repeat in nature and throughout the universe [18]-[25].
    Plasmas in the thermosphere often target and collide sometimes head-on with
    another plasmoid such that two rapidly moving plasmoids appear to purposefully
    seek out each other (Figures 3-5, Figure 8, Figure 15 & Figure 16) Not uncom-
    monly, one or both will eject, in their wake, a cloudy illuminated stream of (A)
    plasma particles and dust or (B) smaller plasmoids prior to or following the colli-
    sion [1] [2].
    In some instances, a plasmoid that is being followed will also eject, in their
    wake, a smaller plasmoid that will target the plasma that is following. This ejected
    mini-plasmoid will strike and/or just prior to collision, cause the plasmoid that is
    following to suddenly reverse direction! Hunters will also sometimes eject a plas-
    moid replicon in their wake, and sometimes the replicon will remain relatively
    stationary (like a Floater) as the Hunter continues to hunt [1]-[5].
    Some plasmoids will also merge for several seconds before moving on. Not un-
    commonly, a cloud of plasma will briefly connect two merging or mutually con-
    tacting plasma, just before they make contact and as they disconnect [1]; perhaps
    reflections of electromagnetic interactions. Yet others will form multi-plasma
    bridges that link them all together. Whether these are purely electrical exchanges
    or evidence of purposeful social behavior is unknown.
    Plasma will also change from a dark mode to illuminated, or from illuminated
    to dark mode. Yet others will suddenly materialize and grow in size as they change
    shape. Commonly, plasma changes shape and size as it moves through space or
    approaches another (Figure 18).

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Figure 18. Sequential photos from STS 75. Shadowy shape-shifter approaches plasma Floater. Both increase illumination as they
draw near and make contact. The extreme shape shifting of the approaching plasma is reminiscent of the shape-shifter filmed by a
U.S. Customs and Border Protection DHC-8 over the ocean and coast of Aguadilla, Puerto Rico [2]

Figure 19. In this sequence, two plasma, Floaters, similar in cloud-like shape, with glowing nuclei at their center, remain adjacent
without moving. The plasma to the right undergoes mitosis, the smaller portion remains behind as the larger, detached portion
moves toward the plasma to the left (see also Figure 3). The detached plasma has a glowing nucleus, whereas its “parent” plasma no
longer has a nucleus. The detached plasma travels to the left and makes contact and merges with the other plasma that also has a
glowing nucleus. What is the meaning of these complex interactions? Is it purposeful and under “intelligent control?” Is this a form
of “horizontal information exchange”? A form of alien mating? Perhaps the two merging plasmas have an attractive charge, the
interactions are electromagnetic and guided by as yet unknown principles of plasma physics.

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4. Lower Atmospheric Encounters with Plasmoids UAP/UFOs
   Langmuir [6]-[8] and other investigators report that plasma created in a labora-
   tory engage in life-like purposeful behaviors and complex interactions, including
   tracking, merging, and colliding (sometimes referred to as “collisionality” and
   “energy cannibalism”). Identical behaviors have been observed in the thermo-
   sphere [1]-[5] [16]. Navy pilots, who observed and filmed these plasma-like forms,
   claimed these entities display intelligence and an awareness of their surroundings.
   Plasmas in the thermosphere approach and congregate near sources of electro-
   magnetic activity including an electrified tether generating electromagnetic pulses
   into the space medium and above thunderstorms (Figure 17, Figure 22), where
   many will approach, pierce, merge and pass by each other [1]-[5]. They also ap-
   proach these storms at varying speeds, only to slow down as they descend into the
   storm without burning up (Figure 17). Yet others will ascend from thunderstorms
   and hurricanes back into the thermosphere and may pace or follow or approach
   the space shuttles [1]-[5] [16].
   These plasmas are electromagnetic entities and are obviously attracted to sources
   of electrical activity. It has been hypothesized that plasmoids which have de-
   scended into the lower atmosphere account for many observations of UAP/UFOs,
   especially those seen above nuclear power plants and nuclear-powered ships and
   sites of nuclear disasters and explosions [1] [2]; a thesis that challenges all tradi-
   tional extraterrestrial explanations; provides a scientific framework for under-
   standing some phenomena associated with UAP and which effectively ties to-
   gether atmospheric science (e.g. thunderstorms, lightning, atmospheric charging
   and white water ocean conditions) with observations of UAP from Navy pilots
   and as based on U.S. Navy film footage. It is now well documented that some
   UAPs exhibit complex behaviors akin to those typical of plasmoids in the thermo-
   sphere and may be responsible for what is referred to as “inexplicable” airline dis-
   asters [2].
   The fact is: These entities (AKA UAP/UFO) once they descend into the lower
   atmosphere and like those in the thermosphere [26]-[41], display no means of
   propulsion, make “impossible turns,” approach and nearly collide with aircraft,
   and can suddenly accelerate to gravity defying hyper-velocities and disappear into
   the upper atmosphere [37] [38]. This is typical plasma behavior in the thermo-
   sphere, and characteristic of plasmas (AKA UAP/UFOs) in the lower atmosphere
   [26]-[41] as documented by Navy pilots Ryan Graves and David Fravor in pre-
   pared statements for the United States Congressional Oversight Committee [40]
   [41].
   For example, Ryan Graves reported [40]: “I have witnessed UAP on multiple
   sensor systems firsthand... They were a common occurrence, seen by most of my
   colleagues on radar and occasionally up close. The sightings were so frequent that
   they became part of daily briefs.... A pivotal incident occurred during an air com-
   bat training mission in Warning Area W-72, an exclusive block of airspace ten
   miles east of Virginia Beach. All traffic into the training area goes through a single

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GPS point at a set altitude. Just at the moment the two jets crossed the threshold,
one of the pilots saw... a clear sphere—motionless against the wind, fixed directly
at the entry point. The jets, only 100 feet apart, were forced to take evasive action...
The UAP we encountered and tracked on multiple sensors behaved in ways that
surpassed our understanding and technology. The UAP could accelerate at speeds
up to Mach 1, hold their position against hurricane-force winds, and outlast our
fighter jets, operating continuously throughout the day. They did not have any
visible means of lift, control surfaces or propulsion—nothing that resembled nor-
mal aircraft with wings, flaps or engines. I am a formally trained engineer and I
have no explanation for this... Pilots are reporting UAP at altitudes that appear to
be above them at 40,000 feet, potentially in low earth orbit or in the grey zone
below the Karman line, making inexplicable maneuvers, like right hand turns and
retrograde orbits, or j-hooks... I have met with highly credible commercial pilots
at major airlines with decades of experience, often veterans, who describe UAP
operating at altitudes that appear to be above them... potentially in low earth or-
bit...”
And just as plasmoids in the thermosphere commonly follow, target and collide
with each other, Navy pilots have reported numerous encounters where they had
to take evasive action to avoid collisions with UAP which more often than not,
have an oval form and change shape (Figure 20) and possibly internal layers sim-
ilar to plasmoids (Figure 20). According to Graves [40]: “The UAP Task Force
reported in 2021 that there were 11 near misses with UAP and I understand that
number has grown.” In an earlier report, it has been documented that increased
sightings of UAP also correspond with increased incidents of inexplicable aircraft
disasters—a function possibly due to plasma induced electronics failure and men-
tal disturbances, and/or head-on collisions [2].
It is well documented that encounters with these plasmoid-like UAPs can short
out electronics, radar, and autopilots reported by Graves and others, including,
according to David Fravor: “jamming of the APG-73 radar in the aircraft.” The
disruption of electronics is predictable given that plasmoids are electromagnetic
entities that are attracted to and emit electromagnetic radiation (REF).
As reported in U.S. Congressional testimony [41]: David Fravor, a former Navy
commander, and a graduate of the Top Gun naval flight school, was commander
of an F/A-18F squadron on the USS Nimitz on November 14, 2004 about 100
miles southwest of San Diego, when advanced radar on the USS Princeton de-
tected “multiple anomalous aerial vehicles” over the horizon and descending
80,000 feet in less than a second. According to Fravor [41]: “The air controller on
the ship... had been observing these objects on their Aegis combat system for the
previous 2 weeks. They had been descending from above 80,000 ft and coming
rapidly down to 20,000 ft, would stay for hours and then go straight back up.
Fravor and another pilot, Dietrich, diverted to investigate [41]. That’s when he
and Dietrich spotted the UAP. “I said, ‘Dude, do you, do you see that thing down
there?’ And we saw this little white Tic Tac-looking object. And it’s just kind of

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moving above the whitewater area.” Fravor reported that he and three fellow mil-
itary pilots all observed the white oval-shaped object: “There were no Rotors, No
Rotor wash, or any visible flight control surfaces like wings.... the object suddenly
shifted its longitudinal axis, aligned it with my aircraft and began to climb in a
clockwise climbing turn...” And then suddenly it rapidly climbed about 12,000 feet
in the air and approach his fighter jet and for the next five minutes it was mirror-
ing his jet’s movements, leading Fravor to conclude: “it was aware we were there...
And then it rapidly accelerated and disappeared right in front of our aircraft... air
controller let us know that the object had reappeared on the Princeton’s Aegis SPY
1 radar at our CAP point. This Tic Tac Object had just traveled 60 miles in a very
short period of time (less than a minute), was far superior in performance to my
brand new F/A-18F and did not operate with any of the known aerodynamic prin-
ciples that we expect for objects that fly in our atmosphere...and does not emit any
IR (infrared) plume from a normal propulsion system that we would expect.... As
summed up by Fravor [41]: “What we experienced was well beyond the material
science and the capabilities that we have currently or that we’re going to have...”
It can be predicted that plasmoids (AKA UAP/UFOs) observed by Navy pilots
defy “material science” because Plasmas obey the laws of electrodynamics and are
not bound by technology or gravity [27].
5. Gravity Defying Electromagnetic Activity
A plasma is a collection of negatively charged electrons and positively charged
ions and is an excellent conductor of electricity; whereas the electric force between
two ions is many orders of magnitude stronger than gravity [27]. In fact, the elec-
trostatic repulsive force between two protons is 36 orders of magnitude greater
than gravitational attraction; and the repulsive force between two electrons is 42
orders stronger; whereas the attraction between an electron and a proton is 39
orders of magnitude stronger than gravity. Combined, these plasmodic electro-
magnetic forces are one thousand trillion trillion trillion (1039) times stronger than
the gravitational force [27] and can be attractive as well as repulsive.
Moreover, plasmas are excellent electrical conductors, similar to wires carrying
current. These currents produce their own magnetic fields which generate cur-
rents with velocities that can range from 5 to 50 km/sec [27]. Although plasmas
have mass, plasmas obey the laws of electromagnetism and commonly accelerate
to hyper velocities and engage in gravity-defying behaviors. Not surprisingly, plas-
mas that descend into the lower atmosphere can easily outmaneuver military air-
craft and fly off at incredible velocities.

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Figure 20. (Top Left) From US Navy Film of UAP. (Top Right). Processed by Fotor Image Software designed to detect pixel-differ-
ences in gray scales. Note layered outer-layers which may be indicative of plasmoidic outer-layers or reflective of electromagnetic
illumination. (Bottom two rows). Plasma filmed by ST 80. Processed by Fotor Image Software.

Figure 21. Plasmoids observed in association with a satellite tether (TSS-IR) at the beginning and end of the 18.2s period sampled
and subject to analysis: (a) T1, (b) T91 (NASA: STS115). Initially, less than a dozen plasmas/plasmoids appeared, whereas within 18
seconds nearly 100 gathered or swarmed toward the tether which is 12 miles in length and was generating electromagnetic impulses
into space.

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Figure 22. Flight path trajectory, velocity, and tracking plots based on analysis of 53 second (left) and 20 seconds (right) of stable
sequences of film footage from the STS-75 determined by “RegiStax” astronomical image enhancement software. Many object dis-
play 45, 90, and 180 shifts in trajectory, alter their speed, stop, hover, accelerate, make sudden or slow turns and following one
another. The length of the flight path as is directly proportional to that object’s speed. The faster the structure moves the longer the
line marking its trajectory. Individual plasmas travel at significantly different velocities, directions, and trajectories some making
turns and shifts ranging from 45 degrees to 180 degrees only to slow down and hover, as indicated by the length and curve of each
plotted flight path trajectory which is also a measure of velocity.
6. Communication and Luminescence: Plasmas and the
Language of Light
Plasmas in the thermosphere are distinct from those created in a laboratory as
they are kilometers in size and endure for long, albeit unknown lengths of time.
These double, often multi-layered layered dusty plasmoids of the thermosphere
have likely incorporated gases, dust, grains, and fragments of meteorite, as well as
biological matter cast into upper atmosphere by powerful winds and storms and
all of which may be charged to varying degrees, thereby forming interconnected
circuits that carry a charge, as well as producing electric currents that flow into
the double layers.
As proposed by Alfven [9]-[12] kinetic energy (of the convection) is converted
into electromagnetic energy that flows throughout the circuit and generates elec-
trostatic energy in the double layers which emit particle beams of energy and “high
energy electrons” which radiates light [26]-[31]. Therefore, plasmas/plasmoids in
the thermosphere are self-illuminating because dust, particles, and electrons
within or beneath their double cellular layers are highly charged. When these par-
ticles and dust become highly excited they collide and the energy released includes
photons thereby illuminating the interior and surroundings of the plasma.
For example, electric current from the sun flows into the upper atmosphere and
excites plasma to such a degree that it will glow. The magnetospheres of planets
have depressions, holes above their magnetic poles (Figure 55 & Figure 56), al-
lowing electric current from the sun to gain entry to the upper atmosphere and
triggering brightly colored plasmas, e.g. auroras. Auroras (also known as the
northern lights and southern lights) have a variety of colors including blue, red,

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yellow, green, and orange which flow and shift gently and change shape as they
flow. Auroras are plasmas. Colors depend on what internal gases are being ion-
ized, which is why auroras have a variety of hues.
Plasmas created in the laboratory with high intensity electric currents also
change shape and will glow (as do those in the thermosphere), the brightness de-
pending on the intensity of the strength of the current.
Plasmas in the thermosphere not only glow with light, but many will oscillate
with light in repetitive heart-beat rhythms of brightening then dimming. Plasma
circuits naturally oscillate. However, different plasmas in the thermosphere often
display different patterns and rhythms, whereas not all plasmas will oscillate.
Moreover, some, but not all plasmas/plasmoids oscillate with light as they and
other plasmoids approach thunderstorms or each other [1]-[5].
Plasmoids appear to communicate via oscillations in size and illumination, with
some oscillating between bright and dim and from a larger to a smaller size rela-
tively rapidly as they approach and others relatively slowly after they pass by other
plasmas (Figures 24, Figures 26). Yet others that were illuminated seemingly dis-
appear, presumably because they “turned off” their light (Figure 23) or flew off
into deep space, whereas others may suddenly or rapidly materialize (Figure 8,
Figure 9, Figure 13), possibly because they were in a dark mode and turned on
their lights, or because they erupted from a hole in space-time.
Those that are “cone-shaped” are the most likely to alter their patterns of size
and illumination; behaviors that resemble rhythmic pumping (Figure 8, Figure
24, Figure 26, Figure 27). Not uncommonly, several cone-shape object relatively
near one another, differ dramatically such that one will be pulsate rapidly as it
“swims” through space and near other plasmas whereas another cone-shaped
plasma oscillates slowly, and a third-which may be hovering in place, not at all
(Figure 27). As there appears to be no electromagnetic explanations that can ex-
plain these differential behaviors, it is reasonable to hypothesis these actions are
purposeful, and may serve some communicative function.
Not all plasmas will emit light. The ionosphere is a plasma that does not emit
light except during auroras. Much of the universe consists of plasma, which is in
a dark mode. Furthermore, shadowy dark shape-shifting forms have been ob-
served among plasmoids congregating near the electrified tether filmed by STS 75.
Some of these latter plasmoids have also been noted to glow as they approach and
contact other plasmas (Figure 18) and this may be due to increases in electric
current and voltage across their layers. Or, it may serve a communicative function
and is purposeful.
Therefore, plasmas operate in a dark mode, normal glow mode, arc mode and
oscillate with light. The brightness of the glow likely depends on current intensity
and plasma density. The stronger the current, the brighter the plasma. If current
density increases and a higher voltage passes across a plasma it will light up. How-
ever, if the voltage drops the plasma will also light up. This is due, in large part to
the movement of electrons. Electrons, being less massive than ions, also move

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about freely, back and forth around the more slowly moving ions, creating har-
monic oscillations and produce light when they move between energy levels within
an atom [27]. When an electron “jumps down” to a lower energy level, it emits a
photon of light with a specific wavelength and color depending on the energy dif-
ference between the levels. Different energy level transitions produce different
wavelengths of light, which can be perceived as oscillations as the light dims and
brightens. Hence, plasmas respond to continued increases in current with a rise
then a drop then a rise in voltage and the plasma will oscillate in size and with
light. As current continues to increase, the plasma will jump into an arc mode and
shine with high intensity bright white light.
It could be argued, therefore, that Plasmas, are responding to the charges and
electrical circuits in their immediate environment. That environment includes
plasmas with different densities and electric charges. However, this explanation
cannot account for why plasmas are also expanding and shrinking in size as they
move through space; and why those adjacent show different patterns of oscilla-
tion; and why those approaching vs passing by other plasmas oscillate at different
speeds [27]-[36]. These latter observations support the hypothesis that some plas-
moids may be communicating via a “language of light” i.e., oscillating electromag-
netic waves and that the shape-shifting pumping patterns of shrinking and ex-
panding are a means of purposeful locomotion.
Given that plasmas also display a variety of shapes and behaviors, and the fact
that not all oscillate in size, shape, and illumination, also further documents that
a variety of plasmoids dwell in the lower and upper atmosphere [26]-[41] and that
diverse species of “life” swim the seas of space surrounding our planet.

Figure 23. Waxing and waning illumination in heart-beat-rhythms every 2 seconds.

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Figure 24. Plasmoid to the left oscillates in size and brightness rapidly as it approaches and then lingers near another plasma (that
is not oscillating) whereas, plasmoid to the right oscillates relatively slowly as it passes by another plasma (that is not oscillating).

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Figure 25. Different patterns of pulsating from dim to bright illumination.

Figure 26. These two cone-shaped plasmoids were filmed simultaneously at an estimated distance of 12 KM (7.5 miles) from each
other yet differed dramatically at the rate of oscillation.

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Figure 27. Three cone-shaped plasmoids displaying different patterns of illumination oscillation. The plasmoid at the top (white
square) oscillates relatively rapidly compared to the plasma at the bottom, whereas the plasma (circled in aquamarine) does not
oscillate. One major differences: the plasma at the top is approaching, the one at the bottom has passed by, and the one in the circle
is stationary.

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7. Bioluminescence. Comparisons to Green and Blue-Green
   Algae
   Terrestrial and ocean-dwelling vertebrates and invertebrates also self-illuminate
   (bioluminescence) and may pulsate from bright to dim. They do so to attract ma-
   tes, to lure prey or to discourage predators [32], i.e. it serves to communicate in-
   formation. The key light producing enzymes include crystalline luciferin (which
   is fluorescent) which interacts with oxygen; and/or with cofactors such as magne-
   sium or calcium ions and often in the presence of adenosine triphosphate [32].
   Although luciferin has not been detected in space, magnesium, oxygen, calcium
   have been repeatedly detected and is abundant [42]-[56].
   Fungi and algae may also glow with light, as will ocean waters in the wake of a
   fast-moving ships due to agitation of surface-dwelling dinoflagellates, plankton
   and bioluminescent algae. Dinoflagellates (eukaryotic algae), zoo plankton and
   single-celled animal plankton glow because of a chemical reaction that occurs in-
   side their cells when they are disturbed. When the organism’s outer membrane is
   stressed, they sparkle with light. These reactions have a communicative purpose
   that serves to attract food, or conversely ward off predators by startling them with
   a bright flash.
   As noted, Sagan [17] proposed that giant algae-like organisms swim the atmos-
   pheric seas of Jupiter; whereas direct comparisons have been attributed and made
   between the behavior and multi-cellularity of algae colonies and the colonial ap-
   pearance of some plasmoids in the thermosphere [3]-[5]. In fact, like algae, some
   plasmas in the thermosphere form interlinking “bridges” with other plasmas, and
   like algae, some plasmoids consist of colonies of plasmas (Figure 28). And both
   “species” emit light.
   Algae, like plasmoids, respond to, orient toward, and “feed on” electromagnetic
   energy; i.e., algae engage in photosynthesis, a process via which light (electromag-
   netic energy) is transformed into chemical energy. Algae also engage in “social
   behavior” and congregate together and may form algae-bridges with other algae,
   whereas plasmoid form plasma-bridges that link numerous plasmoids together.
   As documented, plasma in the thermosphere also engage in energy cannibalism,
   and the same is true of algae which will cannibalized other organisms including
   algae from which they extract energy.
   Experiments have documented that algae and other organisms survive direct
   exposure to the thermosphere for months and years at a time [57] [58]. The ther-
   mosphere is the natural habitat of plasmas.

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Figure 28. Left: Multi-plasmoidic conglomerates filmed in the thermosphere (processed via Fotor Optics Filters). Right: Multi-algae
colonial conglomerates.

Figure 29. Plasma form multi-plasma “bridges” that link numerous plasmoids together. From STS 80. Processed via Fotor Optics
Filters to identify and colorize differences in pixel gray scales.

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Figure 30. Algae forming multi-algae bridges that link numerous algae together.
8. Plasmoids: Multi-Layer Cellular Membranes
Langmuir [6]-[8] was the first to use the word “plasma” to describe those created
in a laboratory. Langmuir observed that the fluid-like behavior through which
high velocity electrons and ions and plasmas were moving was similar to the way
blood plasma carried white and red corpuscles. He also noted that when a charged
object is introduced the plasma will form cellular structures and double layers.
Hence, the term “Langmuir sheaths” refers to the double layers and cell walls typ-
ically formed by plasmas.
That plasmas in the thermosphere have double (and often multiple) layers,
voids, and what resembles a nucleus, has also been documented [1] [2] as also
reported here (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 20, Figure 29, Figure 31). It is unknown
if these layers and cell walls consist solely of plasma or a plasmoidic concentration
of substances commonly found in space and in the upper atmosphere such as ox-
ygen, carbon, and hydrogen and the remnants of carbonaceous chondrites and
organic-biological matter.
Eukaryotic cellular layers and membranes are comprised of lipids. Lipids also
play a major role in c the formation of vesicles and cellular membranes that form
separate compartments within a cell’s interior. Cell membranes are made from

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lipid-bilayer sheets, which are large assemblies of phospholipids that form two
layers.
It is noteworthy that meteorites contain simple lipids, such as fatty acids and
ether-linked acyclic hydrocarbons (as well as amino acids and nucleotides), which,
in combination make up more than 60% of soluble organics in meteorites [42]-[52];
all of which would be dispersed when these meteorites shatter upon striking the up-
per atmosphere [2] and which may be incorporated into thermosphere plasmas.
As is well known, lipids can self-assemble and form bilayers, vesicles and hollow
cellular-like membranes held together by non-covalent interactions.
If dusty plasmas incorporate lipids dispersed by shattered meteorites, might
they reassemble and form layers, compartments and vesicles? It is reasonable to
ask this question; especially given evidence that in addition to layers some ther-
mosphere plasmoids appear to have a nucleus and compartmentalized inner
structures and multiple layers.
Although the composition of these plasmodic layers is unknown, it is not un-
reasonable to hypothesize that dusty plasmas may have incorporated lipids; and
these lipids may have self-assembled and contributed to the formation of plas-
modic walls and layers. And if these inner and outer layers are permeable this
would allow for ion and nutrient transport, storage, and the absorption and gen-
eration of energy. Further, in the presence of multiple sources of energy, radiation,
and hydrogen gasses, these multi layered membranes would likely evolve capaci-
tance, with hydrogen, oxygen or other gasses acting as an additional energy
source.
However, lipids in modern (terrestrial) cell membranes have carbon chains that
are typically 12 - 20 carbons long [52]. Meteorites contain fatty acids which are 2–
12 carbons in length; which may, or may not be sufficient to maintain the double
layers of thermosphere plasmoids. On the other hand, it has been hypothesized
that the original molecules in ancient membranes were smaller and less complex
[52] [53] wheres vesicles can be composed of a single fatty acid type as short as 8
carbons in length [54]. Meteorites contain fatty acids 2 - 12 carbons in length;
therefore vesicles could indeed form directly out of meteorite-delivered fatty acids
[42] [55] [56]; and, to speculate, may have contributed to the layers and internal
compartments that characterize the plasmas of the thermosphere.

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Figure 31. Plasmoids filmed by STS 75. Processed via Fotor filters which identify differences in pixel gray scales.
9. RNA, DNA, Fourth Domain of Life?
At present, three domains of life are recognized: Archae and Bacteria (collectively
referred to as prokaryotes), and multi-cellular eukaryotes. Although viruses have
an RNA or DNA genome, they are not considered to be living entities. That the
three branches of life—and some viruses—all possess a DNA-based genome, and
given the universality of the genetic code, supports the hypothesis that DNA is a
“cosmic imperative” and a requirement for life “as we know it”; and that to achieve
life requires the acquisition of a DNA-genome. Can plasmas/plasmoids be con-
sidered living entities and a fourth domain of life if they do not possess an RNA-
DNA based genome?
Lipid bilayers are permeable to amino acids and would enable dusty plasmas to
incorporate the shattered remnants of carbonaceous chondrites and all the nucle-
otides, acids, proteins necessary for life and the fashioning of RNA and DNA.
However, plasma, in-itself is permeable, which would allow all these chemicals
and molecules to become incorporated.
As will be detailed, all the ingredients and conditions necessary for building
complex molecular organic structures, amino acids and proteins are present in
space and in nebular clouds including phosphorus, calcium, water, carbon, and
oxygen; which when mixed together and irradiated might easily produce self-rep-
licating carbon-crystal-helixes. In fact, all the necessary elements, chemical, amino
acids and nucleotides necessary for the establishment of a RNA-DNA, and thus
life, are abundant in the vast environment of space and the upper atmosphere; and
which would likely be incorporated within dusty plasmas via their semi-permea-
ble plasma membranes.
Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, calcium, sulfur, nitrogen and phosphorus incorpo-
rated within a dusty plasmas would be continually irradiated by ions thereby gen-
erating small organic molecules which would then evolve into larger complex or-
ganic molecules thereby resulting in the formation of amino acids and other com-
pounds. Moreover, the presence of hydrocarbons (catalyzed by stellar radiation),

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once incorporated, could be employed for polymerization and the additional cre-
ation and assembly of the necessary elements and macromolecules essential for
life [57]. Further, in the presence of multiple sources and types of energy, radia-
tion, and hydrogen gasses, these double layered membranes would likely evolve
capacitance, with hydrogen, oxygen or other gasses acting as an additional energy
source.
Given that energy and all the necessary life-sustaining molecules, acids and nu-
cleotides may be commonly incorporated within a dusty plasma, it is not unrea-
sonable to assume that this mix would eventually lead to the creation of at least a
single strand of DNA. Further, these combinations would be continually irradi-
ated, engulfed with electromagnetic energy, thereby providing these coalescing
organic molecules and strands of DNA with additional sources of energy. To spec-
ulate: eventually, this energized DNA-membranous-protein-plasmoid complex
would have begun to function as a proto-organism with all its needs provided by
the chemically and electromagnetically enriched surrounding environment. Even
if these initial strands of DNA consisted of only 4 base pairs, these complex plas-
modic-cellular structures would have begun evolving. With every replication the
plasmoid genome would have expanded and become more variable and more
complex.

Figure 32. Plasmoids of the thermosphere processed via Fotor image software to detect and colorize internal structures based on
identification of differences in pixel gray scales. Note helical, spiral internal structures, nucleus and spiral ganglia which are common
attributes of plasmoids. We can only speculate as to the nature of these internal structures, due to the fact that NASA added four
layers of noise and would turn off the camera within 20 seconds after these specimens would come into view [3].

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Figure 33. Electron microscopic images of chromatin and its helical contours and structure. Chromatin is a complex of DNA, RNA,
and proteins that condenses DNA which is wrapped around nuclear proteins and forms chromosomes. Reproduced and modified
from Bartolome, S. et al. (1994) Internal Structure of 30 nm chromatin fiber. Journal of cell Science 107, 2983-2992 [58].
10. Electricity and the Origins of Life
For over 300 years it has been believed that electricity and lightning are essential
for the creation of life [59]-[65]. Consider, for example, the contraction of frog
muscles when directly stimulated by electricity from Leyden jars or when a long
metallic wire connected to the nerves are excited by lightning. These life-like re-
actions were first documented in the 18th century by Galvani and Volta who
demonstrated that lightning, atmospheric electricity, electrical fields and nerve
conduction share similar properties [60] [62]. This relationship was again dramat-
ically demonstrated in 1803 when Giovanni Aldini employed electro-stimulation
to activate the deceased body of an executed criminal [59]-[62]: “On the first ap-
plication of the process to the face, the jaws of the deceased criminal began to
quiver, and the adjoining muscles were horribly contorted, and one eye was actu-
ally opened. In the subsequent part of the process the right hand was raised and
clenched, and the legs and thighs were set in motion.” Mary Shelly knew of these
and other experiments and it was electricity which brought her Frankenstein mon-
ster to life.
By the 20th century many scientists began to believe that intense energy from
lightning strikes in Earth’s early atmosphere provided the necessary conditions to
create the basic building blocks of life, including amino acids, by converting read-
ily available elements like nitrogen and carbon into usable forms; the electricity
from lightning acting as a catalyst for the chemical reactions that, theoretically,
led to the emergence of RNA, then DNA and the first forms of life. Stanley Miller
and Harold Urey [63]-[65] put this theory to the test by exposing a mixture of
water, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen to electric sparks between a pair of elec-
trodes to mimic lightning in a gas-filled flask. These experiments were based on
the theory that lightning could have led to the formation of prebiotic molecules.
They successfully produced a variety of organic compounds and amino acids, in-
cluding glycine, α-alanine and β-alanine, aspartic acid and α-aminobutyric acids
[65]. However, like all previous and subsequent experiments, life has never been
created from non-life, at least, not on Earth.
11. Meteorites, Nucleotides, RNA, DNA and Amino, Nucleic
Acids in Space
Meteors are subject to electromagnetic, electric, and ionizing forces, and several

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meteorites that fell to Earth have been found to contain a variety of amino acids
[43]-[51], including and especially the Murchison meteorite. Amino acids provide
the building blocks for proteins; and the sequence of amino acids in a protein is
determined by the genetic code contained in the nucleotide sequence of DNA and
RNA. Ionization is a critical to the process-and ionization is ongoing within the
thermosphere.
The ionization and chemistry of amino acid side chains is critical to protein
structure because these side chains can bond with one another to hold a length of
protein in a certain shape or conformation. That is, charged amino acids form
ionic bonds, and polar amino acids are capable of forming hydrogen bonds and
are the building blocks of proteins, which are ultimately produced based on the
genetic information coded in DNA and transcribed into RNA [57]. Essentially,
the sequence of nucleotides in DNA dictates the order of amino acids in a protein,
making amino acids the functional output of the genetic code stored in the nucleic
acids of DNA and RNA.
The Murchison meteorite that fell near Murchison, Victoria, Australia in 1969
has been extensively examined, and Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance
mass spectrometry has detected over 10,000 unique compounds [42]-[47]. Twelve
amino acids, including N-methylglycine, β-alanine, 2-methylalanine, and α-amino-
n-butyric acid as well as alkyl amides—all of which can be converted to amino acids
by hydrolysis-have also been identified [47]-[48]. The Nakhla, Orgueil, Asuka and
Ivuna meteorites have also been found to be rich in amino acids, including glu-
tamic acid, glycine, aspartic acid, serine, alanine, β-alanine, and γ-amino-n-bu-
tyric acid [43]-[45]. Moreover, the Ryugu asteroid was found to contain a total of
thirteen amino acids and an additional five amino acids that were tentatively iden-
tified but not quantitated, as well as abundances of four aliphatic amines [50].
In fact, all five nucleobases that make up DNA and RNA—adenine, guanine,
cytosine, thymine, and uracil—have now been found in meteorites [50]. Further,
glycine and tryptophan which are essential for protein formation have been iden-
tified in interstellar space. Thus, amino acids and nucleotides have been found in
meteorites that have crashed to Earth and are common in space.
In addition, the combination of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, cyanide
and several other elements, could create adenine, which is a DNA base, whereas
oxygen and phosphorus could ladder DNA base pairs together. Hence, the build-
ing blocks for DNA could have been generated or combined within dusty plasmas;
and DNA would become part of this molecular-protein-amino acid complex,
along with lipid-like structures due to the interaction of phosphates with sugars.
If incorporated into a dusty plasma, might these essential ingredients become
transformed into RNA and DNA?
According to Powner and colleagues [66] they were able to mix and irradiate
all the precursor molecules identified in interstellar dust clouds and meteorites
and create ribonucleotides: the basic building blocks of RNA. Ribonucleotides are
also important in DNA replication and numerous biological processes. Subse-

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quently, Papastavrou and colleagues [67] reported that they created an RNA mol-
ecule using these and other ingredient; that, although unable to self-replicate, ac-
curately copied other RNA molecules and resulted in a functioning enzyme.
Synthetic DNA has also been created in a lab. Khorana [68] synthesized a gene
which coded for the enzyme involved in the transfer RNA or tRNA synthesis. Spe-
cifically, double-stranded DNA was cut into short single-stranded segments then
synthesized. The segments formed bi-helical complexes and spontaneously joined
end-to-end creating covalently linked duplexes which then curled together form-
ing 207 base-pair-long DNA and voila: a synthetic gene.
What all these experiments demonstrate is that RNA and DNA can be synthe-
sized if provided with all the ingredients commonly found in meteorites and
space. However, all these experiments failed to produce life or RNA or DNA that
could self-replicate; presumably because all the necessary conditions and incubat-
ing environments for creating a functional genome and “life” could not be recre-
ated in a laboratory. But what if the “laboratory” was a plasma in the thermo-
sphere?
The implications are: since RNA and synthetic DNA can be created in a labor-
atory then certainly RNA and DNA might have been created within a dusty
plasma over billions of years of time. In fact, this scenario becomes highly proba-
ble considering the likelihood that plasmas have had at last 13 billions of years to
synthesize RNA and DNA. Furthermore, in Earth’s upper atmosphere, and for
several billions years, dusty plasmas may have engulfed not only all the essential
ingredients but a variety of terrestrial organisms and their RNA and DNA. And,
hypothetically, via the acquisition of electric charges and horizontal gene transfer
all this genetic information may now be part of the dusty plasma genome.
12. Dusty Plasmas and Hypothetical Origins of RNA-DNA
Some authors have argued that plasmas may represent a form of “pre-life” or in-
organic non-biological life [1]-[5] [16] [28] [33]-[36] and may have provided an
incubating environment for the fashioning of DNA-based life [1].
Plasmas in the thermosphere are also referred to as “dusty plasma” [69] because
they have incorporated dust, grains, and the remnants of carbonaceous chondrites
that have shattered upon striking the upper atmosphere [1]. The implications are
that some upper atmospheric plasmoids likely incorporated the nineteen terres-
trial and seventy-three extraterrestrial amino acids that have been detected in car-
bonaceous chondrites and all five of the nucleobases that make up DNA and RNA.
In fact, all the common elements essential to life flow through space and may be-
come incorporated within and beneath the multiple layers of a plasma, including
carbon, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur, nitrogen, cyanide, calcium, and hydrogen
and which, when irradiated will form organic molecules [57] [70]-[72].
Once incorporated within a plasma, these molecules, nucleotides and amino
acids, would be subject to ion chemistry [1] and could evolve into larger complex
organic molecules and compounds including adenine which is an RNA-DNA

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base, as well as other nucleotides within the dust-induced plasma void-nucleus,
leading to electrically charged lattice- and corkscrew-shaped assemblies of nucleic
and amino acids [1] [28] [33]-[36]. Theoretically, these could form enzymes and
proteins that begin catalyzing reactions within the plasma cell membrane giving
the membrane adhesive stability and conferring movability; and leading to the
generation of self-replicating RNA-like polymers and protein enzymes (polynu-
cleotides) that resemble RNA but are chemically simpler and can act as a catalyst
[57].
Polarized radiation induces asymmetric photochemistry leading to homochi-
rality and the induction of chiral asymmetry which can produce quantities of L-
amino acids. In combination with tryptophan this could lead to the formation of
proteins, nucleobases and then RNA within dusty plasmas located in the thermo-
sphere. RNA can store genetic information encoded in the order of its monomers,
the ribonucleotides, as well as catalyze its polymerization and self-replicate [70]-
[72]. Oxygen and phosphorus could ladder RNA-DNA base pairs together [57].
Plasmas, in fact, form spiral helix-like loops when exposed to high intensity
currents which act to compress and pinch the layers together. Plasmoids with
twisted corkscrew spiraling shapes are commonly observed in the thermosphere
[1]-[5] and are created in the laboratory when plasmas are exposed to high inten-
sity electric currents [28] [33]-[36] [73]. Because dust and fragments from mete-
orites are likely highly charged they may trigger the formation of double layers
within which this molecular-protein-amino acid complex and the building blocks
of nucleotides and other vital prebiotic molecules could have been exogenously
incorporated; perhaps forming a nucleus. Moreover, once embedded within the
plasma, they may twist, spin, and may form helical structures that can evolve into
a double helix similar to the double helix of DNA [28] [33]-[36]. Spiral helical
internal structures are common among plasmoids in the thermosphere (Figure 1,
Figure 32).
We have hypothesized that plasmas could produce an internal “RNA-world”
and achieve a form of “pre-life” and then continue to evolve and form DNA [1].
Computer simulations of the reduced gravity of space have shown that plasmas
will bond together, forming electrically charged corkscrew-shaped assemblies that
resemble strands of DNA [28] [33]-[36] and chromatin which is a helical, spiral
complex of DNA, RNA, and proteins that condenses DNA and forms chromo-
somes (Figure 33). Hypothetically, this combination could have led to the first
RNA world (within a dusty plasma), followed by DNA-based life [1] [2].
The fact is: the conditions necessary to generate living plasma are common in
space. Hence, perhaps the complex behaviors of plasmoids are life-like, because
they are alive.
It is reasonable to ask: might a transition from non-biological plasma-cellular
to biological cellular occur following the acquisition and synthesis of organic mat-
ter, proteins, amino acids, nucleotides, etc. have taken place within the plasma’s
nucleus? Is it possible that dusty plasmas in space have acquired RNA then DNA

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and are alive? Might this explain their complex behavior?
13. Have Dusty Plasmas Incorporated Bacteria, Fungus,
Algae, Lichens, Plankton and DNA?
The prevailing consensus, based on multiple lines of evidence, is that Earth’s elec-
tromagnetic field has been in existence for at least 3.5 billion years and was present
near the end of the heavy bombardment phase after life had already taken root on
this planet [74] [75]. The plasmasphere is within the innermost part of Earth’s
magnetosphere and above the ionosphere and surrounds and rotates with Earth,
and is constantly bathed in streams of plasma from the Sun. NASA space shuttle
films have revealed a brightly illuminated ring of plasma, within which plasmoids
can be detected, and which appears to attract and/or generating plasmoids (Figure
34). Therefore, it can be assumed that plasmas have swam the upper atmosphere
of Earth for over 3.5 billion years.
The surface of modern Earth is marked by 200 massive craters that can be seen
from orbiting space craft. How many huge bolides have struck the oceans is un-
known but must be many times that. Each time a meteor, comet or asteroid struck
Earth or its oceans, mountains of dirt, rock and vast volumes of water, and all the
life they contained, would have been ejected into the upper atmosphere and space.
The Chicxulub impact, 65 million years ago, is believed to have ejected up to 5.5
× 1012 kg of debris [76]. Hence, undoubtedly, terrestrial seeds, insects and their
eggs, plants, corals, sponges, fish, crustaceans and other metazoans would have
been propelled and ejected skyward by each bolide impact; and unknown num-
bers would have survived flash frozen in large bodies of water and buried within
huge chunks of rock and mountains of debris or clinging to dust and pieces of
rock. Therefore, over the course of billions of years, massive amounts of earth and
water must have been splashed into the upper atmosphere and space along with
innumerable forms of life [75] [77].
It is well established that fungi, lichens, and algae and over 1800 different types
of bacteria flourish within the troposphere, the first layer of Earth’s atmosphere
[74] [75] [78]. Microbes, algae, fungi, lichens, spores, insects, larva, pollen, seeds,
water, dust and nematodes are often transported to the stratosphere and meso-
sphere due to tropical storms, monsoons, thunderstorms, hurricanes, tornados,
volcanic eruptions and seasonal and electrostatic upwellings of columns of air
[79]-[82]. Microorganisms, fungi, and spores have been recovered at 40 km, 61
km and 77 km above Earth [83]-[85] and even in the thermosphere [86]—which
begins around 85 km and extends 600 km above the planet. Might these organisms
have become incorporated within dusty plasmas?
In August of 2014 the Russian Space Agency reported that Russian cosmonauts,
Olek Artemyev and Alexander Skvortsov, discovered “plankton” and other or-
ganisms, living on the exterior windows of the International Space Station [86]
despite the subzero temperatures, lack of oxygen and constant exposure to cosmic

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Figure 34. Plasmas gathering toward a thick glowing band of flowing plasmas.

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rays. These living organisms included bacteria, algae, protozoa, and fungi, collec-
tively referred to as zoo plankton and single-celled animal plankton and which
include those which are bioluminescent. According to the Russian Space Agency,
these plankton must have been blown into the thermosphere by powerful current
of wind.
It is well established that bacteria, algae, fungi, diatoms, lichens [87]-[91] as well
as plants, insects and their eggs and seeds can survive for years in the thermo-
sphere outside of the International Space Station [92]. As documented by Orlov
et al.’s [92] bacteria, fungi, and plant seeds, mosquito larvae, Mayfish dry eggs and
the eggs of crustaceans survived after seven to 13 months exposure, and were able
to reproduce. In fact, between 82% to 98% of seeds from radishes, red mustard,
rice and barley germinated and “developed normally” and up to 42% of dehy-
drated fish eggs and eggs of several invertebrate species belonging to three crusta-
cean orders showed normal growth and reproductive capacity despite 13 months
of exposure to space outside the ISS. Even after 31 months exposure in the ther-
mosphere “larval tissue and cells were not injured” [92].
Dusty plasmas of the thermosphere have incorporated dust and debris beneath
their double cell layers. Hence, it can be predicted that living bacteria, algae, fungi,
plankton-and their genomes-lofted into the upper atmosphere-would have also
been incorporated.
The implications are two-fold. 1) Dusty plasmas may have assimilated and
combined the genomes of all these organisms and in so doing fashioned a unique
plasma genome via horizontal gene transfer; or 2) via horizontal gene transfer, the
genomes of all these species were combined with a pre-existing plasma genome
that had been independently fashioned via the incorporation of all the necessary
substances available in space and the upper atmosphere.
14. Horizontal Gene Transfer. Speculation: Plasmoid
Assimilation of Living Genomes
Bacteria, archaea, and viruses serve as galactic genetic messengers and are ideally
suited for acquiring and making copies of genes, transferring these genes to other
species, as well as accepting foreign genes, and then later donating and transfer-
ring these genes, including their own genes, to yet other organisms [93]-[96]. Ge-
nomic analysis has demonstrated that genes are commonly shared between vi-
ruses, bacteria and archaea and between prokaryotes, viruses and eukaryotes via
horizontal gene transfer (HGT). For example, a substantial portion of the prokar-
yotic (bacteria and archaea) genome consists of viral bacteriophages, plasmids,
transposable elements, and numerous genes and even large segments of entire
chromosomes which have been transferred from species to species via HGT.
Among prokaryotes there are very few orthologous gene which were not obtained
via HGT. Even introns, ribosomal proteins and RNA polymerase subunits are
subject to HGT [93]-[96].
One of the most dramatic examples of HGT is the acquisition of antibiotic re-

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sistance which can be conveyed to a new bacterial host [93]. This is made possible
via the exchange of mini-chromosomes and free DNA which has been expelled
into the cytoplasm of the bacterial cell. These mini-chromosomes then exit and
invade another cell belonging to a different host which incorporates these genes
into its own genome and immediately develops resistance to antibiotics or various
toxins and poisons.
These mini-chromosomes consists of two ropes of nucleotides which may con-
tain hundreds or even thousands of nucleotide sequences and base pairs. These
packets of free-DNA can also duplicate themselves and multiply, forming hun-
dreds of identical copies which can be inserted into the main chromosome of the
invaded host, including the DNA of alien species. Mini-chromosomes can exit the
cell of one species, invade a second species and its genome, attach itself to a row
of nucleotides, make or exchange copies, and then jump to yet another position
within the helix, and/or exit this cell and transfer these DNA-copies to other hosts
[93]-[96].
Hence, mini-chromosomes serve as genetic couriers which are able to travel
from chromosome to chromosome, from cell to cell, and from species to species,
and from the surface of Earth to the upper atmosphere carrying copies of specific
genetic instructions. Once transferred and incorporated into the genome of a host,
that host will come to possess the same genes and can acquire traits and genetic
information belonging to a wholly different species.
Many scientists believe, based on genomic analysis, that the first Earthly uni-
cellular eukaryotes were fashioned when genes from archaea and bacteria com-
bined thereby inducing eukaryogenesis and giving rise to the eukaryote genome
[94]-[96]. It has been theorized that these genes subsequently underwent repeated
single gene and whole genome duplications, perhaps in response to regulatory
signals or environmental triggers, and unicellular eukaryotes became multicellu-
lar and then increasingly complex and intelligent [94].
Gene transfer takes place not only between the living, but the living and the
dead [93]. Bacteria decompose, breakdown, incorporate and digest dead and dy-
ing plants and animals and their DNA. Hence, it can predicted that horizontal
gene exchange commonly occurs among living and dead organisms cast into the
upper atmosphere-including acquiring genes harvested from organisms that died
after these organisms have been incorporated within a dusty plasma. Therefore, it
is not unreasonable to hypothesize that HGT also occurs within dusty plasmas;
that genes combine, and over time, a plasmoid genome might be fashioned that
includes the DNA from innumerable terrestrial organisms; a plasmoid genome
which is surrounded by a nucleus and semi-permeable layers. In this hypothesis
proves true, then, plasmoids would have acquired the DNA that codes for innu-
merable traits and behaviors, including a plasmodic version of the nervous system.
Consider also the phagocytosis of archaea and bacteria and the subsequent do-
nation of their genes to the eukaryotic host. The transfer of these genes and incor-
poration of these organisms resulted in the creation of sub-compartments con-

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sisting of the ingested microbial body that had been stripped of most of its genes
[93]-[96]. The establishment of compartments serves a variety of purposes includ-
ing protection. For example the DNA of multicellular eukaryotes is contained
within the nucleus of every cell and the nucleus protects the eukaryotic genome.
The nucleus and compartmentalization made it possible for predatory eukaryotes
to ingest and phagotocize other creatures while minimizing the risk of random
gene mixing and the unregulated incorporation of foreign DNA.
As documented in this and earlier reports [1]-[3] plasmas commonly make
contact, collide, merge, and pierce one another. And some dusty plasmas appear
to consist of numerous internal sub-compartments and what might be vesicles,
organelles, internal filaments, including a separate nuclear compartment contain-
ing the cell’s DNA. If these enclosures serve to protect and selectively prevent the
transfer of substances from one plasmoid to another is unknown.
15. Hypothesis: Plasmoid Genomes and the First vs Fourth
Domain of Life
We have provided three distinct science-data-based scenarios in which entities of
the thermosphere classified as plasmoid/plasmas may have acquired RNA/DNA
and a functional genome: 1) via incorporation and assimilation of all the necessary
ingredients available in space and the upper atmosphere, 2) via the incorporation
and assimilation of the genomes of organisms cast into the upper atmosphere, and
3) via terrestrial genomes which may have been assimilated into the already estab-
lished genomes of plasmas.
If the plasmoids of the thermosphere have acquired RNA, DNA, and a genome,
and given their complex behavior, then they should be classified as a “fourth do-
main of life” and possibly the “first domain” as life may have begun within a
plasma. However, it must emphasized: to date there is no evidence that plasmoids
contain a genome or even a single strand of DNA.
16. Electromagnetic Explanations for Plasma Life-Like
Behavior
Over 95% of space is filled with electricity-magnetic energy, electrical charges,
electric plasma, clouds of electrons and ionized particles. In fact, it is believed that
99% of the universe consists of cosmic plasmas [9]-[15] [27] [97]-[99] and which
are believed to behave in the same manner as plasmas created in a laboratory.
Streams of plasma will clump together and take form and shape and generate dou-
ble layers in respond to electrodynamic forces and engage in lifelike, self-organiz-
ing, complex behavior in the presence of electric currents, magnetic fields, and the
dust and debris inside them. Therefore, it could be argued that these “behaviors”
are merely electromagnetic phenomenon, devoid of purpose.
Much of cosmic plasma is in the dark mode. When illuminated, positive ions
are moving in one direction and the negatively charged ions flow in the opposite
direction within the double cellular layers. In so doing, they generate electric

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fields which radiate outward. Because plasmas differ in shape, size and density,
these variations will affect the electrical and magnetic activity generated which
in turn will affect other plasmas and their behavior. For example, those with less
density are not as brightly illuminated and do not generate as much electromag-
netic activity as those with a greater density. These interactions, therefore, alt-
hough seemingly life-like, could again be explained as merely electromagnetic
phenomenon.
Via their double layers plasma can isolate, electrically, one section of itself from
another. This is because one layer will have a positive charge and another layer a
negative charge. Moreover, internalized dust, debris, fragments of meteorites will
also have a charge, which may repel or attract one another or migrate to one area
of the plasma depending on whether they have a negative or positive charge. In
response to high intensity currents, the plasma might assume corkscrew spiral
shapes, and as they twist they act to compress everything between them.
Because Plasmas obey the laws of electromagnetism, electrostatic pressures and
extreme electrical stress can cause excessive current densities on their surfaces.
Although internal electrostatic forces prevent the plasma from collapsing, the lay-
ers of this plasma may begin to pinch together. In response to extreme currents,
they may change shape and due to compression, may split apart. This is because
the ions and electrons within the plasma have varying thermal velocities. If exter-
nal electrical potential density increases—such as due to the effects of other plas-
mas—it may pinch the double layers of the plasmas, causing them to divide like a
biological cell, causing the plasma to split, undergoing a form of plasma fissioning
or plasma mitosis and cause them to give birth to additional plasmas. Likewise,
internal electrostatic pressures may cause fissioning and the new pairs may be of
unequal size if one has a larger vs smaller current density.
Therefore, plasmas respond to electrical and magnetic fields including those
generated by other plasmas and which may cause some plasmas to separate and
divide into additional cellular forms; i.e. plasma mitosis—as was captured on film
by U.S. customs when a shape-shifting plasmoid form soared over the airport then
the ocean [2]. However, rather than evidence of biology, even what appears to be
“mitosis” may be purely electromagnetic.
In addition, as noted, some plasmas appear to consist of multi-mini-plasmas
(albeit dozens of meters in size) which may be attached as a conglomerates as their
layers are multi-polar (Figure 28). Therefore, if these electrostatic pressures are
concentrated along the surfaces where these mini-plasma attach, this may cause
the mini-plasma to detach and which may move in a different direction because
each will have an initial repulsive velocity outward away from each other and ether
an attractive or repulsive reaction to other plasma whose surface layers have a
similar of opposite charge. Hence, rather than purposeful and a reflection of sen-
tience, these “behaviors” may be merely electromagnetic phenomenon and obey
“laws” of physics, electricity and electromagnetism as yet unknown.

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17. Quantitative Statistical Analysis Study One: Complex
    Behavior
    Are the plasmas/plasmoids of the thermosphere living entities? Might they con-
    stitute a fourth domain of life even if they do not possess a genome?
    To quantify the behavior and interactions of these “plasmoids” and to provide
    additional data relevant to the question of “life” statistical comparative analyses
    were performed on 91 consecutive freeze-frames (T1 - T91) taken every 0.2 s (a
    total period of 18.2 s) from video footage of plasma-like (“plasmoids”) interacting
    near a “Tethered Satellite System (TSS-IR) positioned 296 Km above the Earth as
    recorded by Space shuttle mission STS 75.
    In February 1996, the Space shuttle “Columbia” conducted experiments to de-
    termine the effects of microgravity on EM pulses transmitted into space via a
    “Tethered Satellite System Refight” (TSS-IR) system positioned 296 Km above the
    Earth [1]-[5]. As the TSS-IR was generating EM force fields, electricity and elec-
    tron beams via the tether subsequently broke but continued to transmit a contin-
    ual stream of up to 3500V into the ionosphere. Subsequently, at first, approxi-
    mately 16 glowing forms, of varying brightness swarmed toward and appeared
    adjacent to or within 24 miles of the tether. Within the next five seconds that
    number increased to over three dozen; and by the end of that 18 second film se-
    quence, the number had increased to nearly 100 (Figure 35) many of which re-
    main relatively stationary whereas others were converging from multiple direc-
    tions toward the tether or colliding and/or merging with, and piercing other “plas-
    mas”.
    As the tether had a known dimension (approximately 12 miles long equivalent
    to 19.3 Km) it provided an approximate scale against which the plasmoids, their
    behavior and velocities could be measured and quantified. Therefore, quantitative
    studies were carried out on the plasmoids aggregating around the tether and on
    their subsequent behavior over a period of 18.2 s. Five analytical studies were car-
    ried out: (A) overall changes in density, sizes, clustering, and collisions of the
    “plasmoids” over the total period of 18.2 s, (B) comparison of the size distributions
    of the plasmoids at different times and whether statistical distributions such as the
    normal and log-normal could account for the size distributions, (C) the frequen-
    cies of different shapes of the plasmoids and whether shape was likely to be stable
    over time, (D) movement of plasmoids, estimates of velocity, and the factors that
    may influence their speed, and (E) the events that occurred during collisions
    among plasmoids
18. Statistical Quantitative Methods (Behavior)
    18.1. Images
    All observations and measurements were made from video footage recorded by
    Space shuttle mission STS 75 [3]. The original NASA film was digitized using Ap-
    ple Final Cut Pro to create 91 consecutive freeze frames (T1 - T91) approximately

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0.2 s apart (a total time of 18.2 s). The freeze-frame images were processed using
“Fotor” image enhancement software and one or more of the following were ap-
plied: anti-blur, and adjustment of contrast, and sharpness [1] [2]. Examples of
the plasmoids at the beginning and end of the 18.2 s period are shown in Figure
1.
18.2. Image Analysis
Images of plasmoids were analyzed using “Image J” software [100]-[102] and
which has been used in various studies in Astrobiology including studies of images
taken by Martian rovers [103] [104]. Each image was magnified to clearly reveal
the plasmoids. Images were manipulated using brightness, contrast, sharpening,
edge detection and “thresholding” to optimize the appearance of the objects and
to establish their boundaries. Image J enables various aspects of the image to be
quantified including density, shape, and size distribution of the plasmoids as well
as estimates of distance travelled and angle of trajectory in the plane of the image.
The reproducibility of these measures was tested by making several sequential es-
timates of the various measures on a sample of plasmoids. The degree of variation
among sequential measurements was low with coefficients of variation (CV) less
than 5%.
Quantification of each frame was carried out using the following procedure.
First, the degree of “brightness” varied considerably among plasmas. Hence, each
image was “thresholded” using the “default method” which emphasizes the bright-
est two-thirds of objects present and omits the dimmer one-third. It is likely that
the latter may also be plasmoids, but the dimmer features are more difficult to
separate from other possible phenomena and background noise. An example of
the effect of “thresholding” on one of the frames (T70) is shown in Figure 28. Sec-
ond, a grid of squares was superimposed over each frame to enable quantification
and statistical evaluation (Figure 29). The size of the grid squares was set to pro-
vide a reasonable sample size for quantifying each frame. Hence, a grid of 60 com-
plete squares plus partial squares was used, the dimension of each being approxi-
mately 167 pixels (6.7 Km). Third, the tether was approximately 12 miles (19.3
Km) long and this enables an approximate scale to be set to measure the plas-
moids. This poses a considerable limitation on the study as only plasmoids as-
sumed to be within the same 2D plane as the tether can be measured with any
accuracy. Hence, a small plasmoid apparently located close to the tether could in
reality be in deeper space especially if in successive frames, it appeared to enlarge
as if approached the tether. Similarly, a larger plasmoid that in successive frames
increased in size may be moving towards the Space shuttle. This problem is par-
ticularly acute when attempting to measure velocity accurately. Hence, a reason-
ably accurate estimate of velocity can only be made for those plasmoids assumed
to be moving in the same 2D frame as the tether.

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Figure 35. Effect of “thresholding” of the frame (T70) using Image J (NASA: STS115).

Figure 36. Superimposition of a grid over a “thresholded’ frame” (T70) (NASA: STS115).

18.3. Study A: Overall Changes
To study the changes which occurred over the 18.2s of video footage, a grid
(Figure 36) was superimposed on each of the 91 freeze-frames after “threshold-
ing” and the following data recorded using Image-J: 1) the total number of plas-
moids present within the complete squares of the grid (excluding the partial
squares around the periphery of the frame), 2) the area of each plasmoid, 3) the
number of new plasmoids that appeared and the number that disappeared during

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each successive 0.2s interval (“gains” and “losses”), and 4) the number of collisions
that occurred between plasmoids. Assessment of collisions is complicated by the
fact that one plasmoid moving behind another may mimic a collision. Hence, ad-
ditional evidence of collision such as arrested movement, obvious fusion, or the
formation of a dust trail [1] [2] were required to count a “collision event”. First,
the data were analyzed using linear regression and correlation methods to deter-
mine whether there were significant linear increases in the variables measured
with time. Second, examination of the raw data identified fluctuations in virtually
every variable measured. To examine these fluctuations, the data were analyzed
by “time-series” analysis using single spectrum (Fourier) analysis [104]-[106] us-
ing STATISTICA software [107]. Spectrum analysis explores whether there are
cyclical patterns in the data with time and the specific objective is to “decompose”
a complex sequence of contiguous data into a few underlying sinusoidal functions.
18.4. Study B: Size Frequency Distributions of Plasmoids
Plasmoid areas (Km2) were measured at five-time intervals during the 18.2 s
period (at T1, T20, T40, T60, and T82) and the mean, median, and modal areas,
area range, and standard deviations (SD) obtained. These measurements included
all the plasmoids within the frame including those in the partial squares to in-
crease sample size. In addition, the degree of skew and kurtosis of the various size
distributions of the plasmoids were tested [108]. Discrete terrestrial entities often
conform to a characteristic statistical distribution. Hence, many measurements
made on biological entities, for example, exhibit a normal or Gaussian distribu-
tion [108]. By contrast, the distribution of the ages and sizes of organisms in a
population may also fit a log-normal distribution [109] which has been used to
describe the size distributions of many plant and animal species as well as non-
biological entities [102]-[104] [110]-[112]. Three distributions were fitted to the
size distributions of the plasmoids at each of the five-time intervals, viz., the nor-
mal, log-normal, and exponential distributions, the latter because of the rapid de-
cline in frequency with increasing size.
18.5. Study C: Shapes of Plasmoids
At least four plasmoid morphologies have been observed: spiral-cylindrical,
cloud, donut (nucleated), and bulbous cone have been identified and based on
behavior have been characterized as “Hunters” “Grazers” and “Floaters” the later
remaining relatively stationary [1]-[3]. Thunderstorm Divers were not evaluated.
Examination of the “threshold” plasmoids present over the 18.2s period indi-
cates there may be at least seven subtypes which engage in various behaviors:
sphere, ellipse, wedge, bottle, reniform (kidney-shaped), cylindrical, and dia-
mond-shaped. The total number of occurrences of these seven types were made
on each of the 91 frames and summed. In addition, to determine whether plas-
moid morphology varied with time, frequencies were obtained for six intervals of
time (T1 - T15, T16 - T30, T31 - T45, T46 - T60, T61 - T75, T75 - T90) which were

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compared using chi-square (χ2) contingency table tests. Joseph et al. [1] [2] also
identified a number of circumstances in which the plasmoids appeared to change
in shape (“shape-shifters”).

Figure 37. Classification of plasmoid morphology: (a) sphere, (b) ellipse, (c) wedge, (d) “bottle”, (e) reniform, (f) cylinder, (g)
diamond (NASA: STS75).

To test this hypothesis, a number of individual plasmas which remained similar
in overall area were followed over successive frames and their ratio of vertical
length to horizontal width (L/W ratio) measured on each occasion.
18.6. Study D: Movement, Velocity, Behavior
It has been observed that some plasmoids appeared to be stationary for long
periods whereas others moved at variable velocities, some at high speeds [1]-[5].
In addition, observation of successive frames suggested that the same plasmoid
may appear and disappear, sometimes several times, over the 18.2 s period. To
study these phenomena, 30 individual plasmoids were followed over the whole of
the 18.2 s period, or if only present for part of that time, from the time of appear-
ance to disappearance. The following data were obtained: 1) the number of 0.2 s
intervals in which a plasmoid was consistently present, 2) the percentage of 0.2 s
intervals the “plasmoid” either moved or was stationary, 3) the number of gaps in
the sequence, i.e., intervals in which a plasmoid disappeared before reappearing,
and 4) the mean length of the gaps between their disappearing and reappearing.
Measuring the velocities of individual plasmoids accurately is difficult but mak-
ing a number of assumptions, rough estimates can be made. The assumptions
made were first, that the tether and associated plasmoids form a reasonable ap-
proximation to a 2D frame of reference, second, that 19.3 Km is a reasonably ac-
curate approximation to the length of the tether and third, that if a plasmoid

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moves consistently up or across the frame without changing significantly in area,
then it is probably moving within a 2D frame relatively close to the tether.
Nevertheless, plasmoids may move in a 2D plane, but be located some distance
below or above the tether, and in these circumstances, velocity will either be un-
derestimated or overestimated respectively. If a plasmoid is moving towards the
tether from deeper space or out of the frame towards the camera, no estimate of
velocity can be made. Seven plasmoids moving in a 2D plane were followed for
varying periods and changes in position and trajectory in successive periods used
to estimate acceleration and velocity.
18.7. Study E: Collisions
It has been observed that plasmoids that collided with others, then turned 45˚,
accelerated, and struck others. Such encounters often resulted in a glowing plasma
“dust-like” trail, evident even when the two plasmoids involved moved apart [1]-
[3]. Measuring change in velocity, trajectory, and shape following these encoun-
ters is particularly difficult as both partners need to be moving in the same plane
of the field and also not to change significantly in area. Four such encounters were
studied over successive frames including intervals before and after the collision.
In each frame, the position, angle of trajectory, and L/W ratio were recorded.
19. Results: Behavioral Analysis
19.1. Study A: Overall changes

Figure 38. Density of plasmoids (Total number in all complete grid squares) in each 91, 0.2 s interval
(Regression line: Y = 6.97 + 1.97X; r = 0.94; r2 = 0.88).

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The density of “threshold” plasmoids increased linearly over 18.2s from 6 - 51
“plasmoids” per grid (Figure 5, Table 1). Although the linear regression was highly
significant (r = 0.94, r2 = 0.88), there was considerable fluctuation about the line.
The difference in the number of plasmoids in successive 0.2 s intervals, however,
was not linearly related to time (r = −0.06, P > 0.05) indicating a relatively uniform
change in numbers over time. Nevertheless, both the number of “gains” between
successive 0.2s time intervals (0 - 12) and the number of “losses” (0 - 21) were weakly
correlated with time (gains: r = 0.33, P < 0.05); losses: r = 0.33, P < 0.05). The inten-
sity of clustering of the plasmoids around the tether (as measured by the V/M ratio)
varied from 0.79 (essentially random) to 2.79 (highly clustered) but the degree of
clustering did not correlate significantly with time (r = 0.16, P > 0.05). Mean area of
plasmoids per frame varied from 0.20 - 0.73 Km2 but change in mean area was not
correlated with time (r = 0.02, P > 0.05). Similarly, minimum area of plasmoids per
frame was unrelated to time (r = −0.14, P > 0.05) but maximum area was signifi-
cantly correlated with time (r = 0.50, r2 = 0.25) indicating either the acquisition of
more larger-sized plasmoids later in the period or growth in area of individual plas-
moids already present. The number of verifiable collisions per 0.2s interval varied
from 0 - 2 and was weakly correlated with time (r = 0.39, P > 0.05, r2 = 0.15) indi-
cating that more collisions occurred when the plasmoids were more numerous.

Table 1. Changes in density of plasmoids over 18.2 s interval divided into 91, 0.2 s intervals
following detachment of the satellite tether: Fit to a linear model.
Variable
Pearson’s correlation coeffi-
cient (r)
Regression
Density of plasmoids per grid
r = 0.94, P < 0.001, r2 = 0.88 Y = 6.97 + 1.97X
Difference in numbers between succes-
sive 0.2 s intervals
r = −0.06, P > 0.05

Gains per 0.2 s interval
r = 0.33, P < 0.05, r2 = 0.11 Y = 1.02 + 0.16X
Losses per 0.2 s interval
r = 0.33, P < 0.05, r2 = 0.11 Y = 0.44 + 0.19X
Mean area of plasmoids per frame
r = 0.02, P > 0.05

Minimum area of plasmoids per frame r = −0.14, P > 0.05

Maximum area of plasmoids per frame r = 0.50, P < 0.01, r2 = 0.25 Y = 1.86 + 0.04X
Clustering of plasmoids per frame
r = 0.16, P > 0.05

Number of collisions per frame
r = 0.39, P < 0.05, r2 = 0.15 Y = −0.10 + 0.03X

Examination of the trends over time showed that despite a number of linear
changes being detected, the data also suggested that many variables fluctuated
over relatively short periods, with some apparently exhibiting a cyclic pattern. The
results of the single spectrum (Fourier) analysis are shown in Table 2. A Fourier
analysis of the densities of plasmoids per grid (Figure 6) shows that despite the
overall linear trend, numbers fluctuated in a cyclic pattern at three different fre-

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quencies, i.e., at very short (0.2 s) intervals, intermediate (2 s), and at a larger scale
(6 s). Hence, the process of recruitment of the plasmoids around the tether was
complex and cyclical; the short-term fluctuations possibly representing rapid
changes in illumination of the plasmoids while the larger fluctuations may repre-
sent the regular appearance of groups of plasmoids. Similar complex fluctuations
were shown by other variables such as maximum area of plasmoid, their degree of
clustering, and differences in density between successive time intervals (Table 2).

Table 2. Single spectrum (Fourier) analysis of the various changes in plasmoids over 91,
0.2s intervals (KS = Kolmogorov-Smirnov goodness-of-fit test, LC = Linear correction ap-
plied, * Significant deviation from negative exponential distribution.
Variable
KS
LC
Number of peaks
Frequencies
Density of plasmoids per grid
0.30*
+
3
1 - 2, 10, 30
Difference in numbers between
successive 0.2 s intervals
0.39*

1
3
Gains per 0.2 s interval
0.13
+

Losses per 0.2 s interval
0.19
+

Mean area of plasmoids per frame
0.15

Minimum area of plasmoids per
frame
0.05

Maximum area of plasmoids per
frame
0.36*
+
4
2, 6, 10, 45
Clustering of plasmoids per frame
(V/M)
0.24*

4
2, 8, 15, 45

Figure 39. Single spectrum (Fourier) analysis of the changes in density of plasmoids over 91, 0.2 s
intervals showing three peaks of repeating density at 1 - 2, 10, and 30 0.2 s intervals.

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19.2. Study B: Size Frequency Distributions of Plasmoids

Table 3. Descriptive statistics for plasmoid size distributions at five times during the 18.2 s
period analyzed (N = Number of plasmoids, SD = standard deviation, M = Multiple, * Sig-
nificant skew or kurtosis.
Frame
N
Mean
Mode
Range
SD
Skew
Kurtosis
T1
12
0.58
0.34
0.01 - 1.93
0.63
1.06
0.29
T20
33
0.45
0.12
0.01 - 0.55
1.06
1.06
−0.17
T40
41
0.51
0.32
0.01 - 1.90
0.53
0.89
−0.12
T60
54
0.60
0.41
0.01 - 2.33
0.66
1.18*
0.53
T82
120
0.05
M
0.01 - 2.68
0.58
2.12*
4.14*

Study A showed that there were no overall changes in mean area of plasmoids
over the 18.2 s period but more detailed analysis indicated some change over time.
Plasmoid area statistics at five selected times (T1, T20, T40, T60, T82) are shown
in Table 3. Plasmoids ranged in size at the selected times from 0.01 - 2.68 Km2 but
the largest plasmoid recorded at any time was approximately 4 Km2 (T61). Alt-
hough mean area of plasmoids was fairly consistent over the five periods, there
was a decline in mean area at T82. The distributions of plasmoid size were not
significantly skewed or exhibited kurtosis on T1, T20, and T40 but a significant
degree of positive skew was present later in the period at T60 and T82.

Table 4. Size frequency distributions of the plasmoids at five times during the 18.2 s period.
Size classes are upper limits in Km2.
Frame
Size classes (upper limits) (Km2)
<0.09
0.57
1.06
1,54
2.03
2.51

2.51
T1
4
3
2
1
1
0
1
T20
15
6
1
5
3
2
1
T40
17
5
8
6
2
2
1
T60
9
20
11
7
2
3
2
T82
73
19
13
6
6
1
2

The size frequency distributions of the plasmas at the five times are shown in
Table 4 and illustrated at T82 in Figure 7. Figure 7 shows a highly skewed distri-
bution with a preponderance of small plasmoids which may represent either
smaller plasmoids close to the tether but more likely, plasmoids that may be mov-
ing towards the tether from deeper space. The size distribution on T82 was not
fitted significantly by a normal, log-normal, or exponential distribution.

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Figure 40. Size frequency distribution of plasmoid area (Km2) at T82 showing a preponderance of
small plasmoids and rapidly decreasing frequency with increasing area.
19.3. Study C: Shapes of “Plasmoids”

Figure 41. Frequency distribution of plasmoid shape (all records summed over 91, 0.2 s
time intervals).

The frequency distribution of the seven categories of shape summed over all 91
frames is shown in Figure 8. The approximately spherical shape was the most
common (44.5%) followed by wedge (21%), and elliptically-shaped plasmoids
(18%). The distribution of the shapes, however, varied with time (Table 5) (χ2 =
187.33, DF = 25, P < 0.001), a higher proportion of spherical shapes being present
later in the period.

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Table 5. Frequency distribution of different shapes of plasmoid at different time intervals
Chi-square (χ2) = 187.33 (25DF, P < 0.001)
Time interval
Cylinder
Shape category
Sphere
Ellipse
Wedge
Bottle
Kidney
Cylinder
T1 - T15
69
34
78
0
8
10
T16 - T30
69
34
55
3
7
4
T31 - T45
86
54
61
2
2
14
T46 - T60
122
66
53
27
14
23
T61 - T75
200
57
51
32
17
38
T76 - T91
245
74
65
35
4
48
Chi-square (χ2) contingency table test: = 187.33, 25DF, P < 0.001.

An example of change in shape associated with movement of a plasmoid is
shown in Figure 9. An oscillatory change in L/W ratio is evident over a period of
3 s between spherical and elliptical forms. It is possible that non-spherical shapes
are associated with movement of the “plasmoids” while at rest plasmoids revert to
a spherical form.

Figure 42. Oscillating change in shape (L/W ratio, L = Vertical dimension, W = Horizontal
dimension) of a moving plasmoid

19.4. Study D: Movement and velocity
The fate of 30 randomly selected “plasmoids” was followed in detail over con-
secutive frames from appearance to disappearance and the data are shown in Ta-
ble 6. Plasmoids varied from those which were very short lived (present only at a
single 0.2s interval) to those which persisted over the whole 18.2s period (mean

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persistence was 41, 0.2s intervals). The percentage of 0.2s intervals in which plas-
moids were in motion varied from 1% - 100% (mean 69%) and the corresponding
percentage of intervals in which plasmoids were stationary varied from 0 - 99%
(mean 31%). Hence, some plasmoids were in continual motion whereas others
were essentially immobile throughout the period. The number of 0.2s intervals in
which a plasmoid “disappeared” from view and then “reappeared” was in the
range 0 - 6 (mean 0.4) and the length of gaps varied from 0 - 3 intervals. These
phenomena could be attributable to the waxing and waning of the luminescence
associated with the plasmoids as it fell below the “thresholding” level.

Table 6. Persistence and movement of a random sample of 30 plasmoids over the 18.2s
interval.
Variable
Mean
Range
SD
Number of 0.2 s intervals plasmoid present
41
1 - 90
30.69
% 0.2 s intervals in which movement detected
69
1 - 100
33.39
% 0.2 s intervals stationary
31
0 - 99
33.39
Number of “gaps” in trajectory
0.4
0 - 6
1.19
Mean length of “gaps”
0.27
0 - 3
0.68

Table 7. Estimated velocities of a sample of plasmoids moving approximately in a straight
line in a 2D plane.
Plasmoid Acceleration phase
(Km∙s−1)
Constant phase (Km∙s−1,
SD)
Trajectory of movement
(Angle to vertical, SD)
T1.1
16.25
4.40 (2.35)
85 (0.86)
T1.2
7.90
1.10 (0.90)
78 (3.52)
T1.3
12.95
2.05 (1.45)
91 (2.79)
T1.4
19.10
1.90 (0.90)
94 (1.20)
T3.1
11.30
2.45 (1.20)
13 (3.77)
T3.2
15.35
3.90 (2.0)
85 (0.41)
T72.1
35.55
20.75 (6.10)
78 (0.97)

The movement of seven, initially stationary plasmoids moving more or less in
a straight line within the plane of the frame was studied in detail (Table 7). All
showed evidence of an initial period of rapid acceleration (7.90 - 35.55 Km∙s−1)
followed by a lower more fluctuating velocity (1.1 - 20.75 Km∙s−1). All with one
exception (plasmoid T1.3) showed trajectory angles with low SD indicating that
once movement was commenced, the plasmoid remained more or less in a straight
line. A good example of this pattern is illustrated by plasmoid T1.1 (Figure 10)
which showed a period of rapid acceleration (16.25 Km∙s−1) followed by a more
“constant phase (4.4 Km∙s−1). Nevertheless, even within the constant phase, there
were considerable fluctuations in velocity indicating a “jerky” type of movement.

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An exception to this pattern is plasmoid T1.3 (Figure 11) which after initial ac-
celeration travelled at a more or less constant but fluctuating speed for 40, 0.2 s
intervals before making a sharp 163˚ turn and then traveling at an increasing
speed in a new direction before leaving the frame. There were no visible features
within the frame which could account for this sudden change in direction.

Figure 43. Estimated velocity (Km∙s−1) and trajectory (angle from vertical) of plasmoid T1.1 showing a period of rapid acceleration
(16.25 Km∙s−1) followed by a phase in which velocity oscillated around a mean value (4.4 Km∙s−1).

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Figure 44. Colliding, merging, shapshifting plasmoids (plasmas) in the thermosphere. 1. Red Arrow-Plasmoid is attached by a thick
plasmoid bridge (white arrow) to the plasmoid below it. 2. Red Arrow while maintaining a connection (white arrow) to the plasmoid
below it travels toward and forms interlinking plasmoid bridge (white arrow) with Geen-Arrow Plasmoid and then 3, 4, merges with
Green Arrow plasmoid, and 5,6, disconnects from Green Arrow, Note yellow arrows pointing toward similar horse-shoe shapes.

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Figure 45. Donut-shaped plasmas (plasmoids) in the thermosphere linked together via thick clouds of plasma.

Figure 46. Plasmoid (1) is (hypothetically) in profile, and (2) turns, and is (hypothetiically) facing the video-camera. Note vague
clouds of plasma surrounding this specimen.

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Figure 47. Continued from 1-2 (Figure 46). 3. Shape shifting pasmoid in motion, Filters applied to grady scales (3a, 3b, 3c) docu-
menting plasmoids often consist of conglomerates of plasmas loosely bound together, thereby contributing to shifting shapes, and
enabling indvidiual or gorups of plasmas to detached for the main body and make contact with other plasmoids.

A stepwise multiple regression analysis was performed on the 30 plasmoids to
identify factors that may be associated with movement (Table 8). Velocity of a
plasmoid was significantly related to L/W ratio (F = 18.81, P < 0.002) indicating
either that more asymmetric plasmoids travelled at faster speeds or more likely,
that movement distorted the shape of the plasmoid into a more elongated form.
By contrast, initial or closest proximity to the tether did not appear to influence
velocity. In addition, persistence of a plasmoid over 18.2 s was dependent on its
width (F = 6.88, P = 0.014), indicating that the larger “plasmoids” were more con-
sistently present.
The number of collisions occurring over 18.2 s (divided into 9-time intervals),
while the plasmoids were aggregating around the tether, is shown in Figure 12.
No collisions were observed during the first 6s after which numbers of collisions
increased with time, maximum collisions being observed in the final interval. As
expected, more collisions depended on plasmid density similar to gas particles in

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a container.
The point of collision between pairs of plasmoids during four “collision events”
is shown in Figure 13 and the detailed course of the “T45 collision event” is shown
in Figure 14. This collision event occurred between two plasmoids (P1, P2), one
of which was moving (P1) while the other was essentially stationary (P2). The ve-
locity of P1 increased prior to the collision which occurred at 1.6s in the sequence.
After collision, P2 remained relatively unaffected while the velocity of P1 showed
considerable fluctuation. In addition, P1 exhibited fluctuations in L/W ratio over
the period but did not appear to be affected by the collision itself whereas P2
showed a larger change in L/W after the collision.
A summary of the four “collision events” is shown in Table 9. Each of the col-
lision events was unique but all showed changes in velocity, trajectory, and/or
L/W ratio as a result of the event. Hence, two events showed increasing velocities
of one or both plasmoids prior to collision (T45, T72), three showed changes in
trajectory before collision although one change was slight (T45, T63, T76), and
two showed changes in L/W prior to collision (T45, T76). One collision event
(T76) appeared to result in a thin trail of material joining the two plasmoids.

Table 8. Stepwise multiple regression analysis (“forward method”) of the 30 plasmoids
summarized in Table 6 (R = Multiple correlation coefficient, F = Variance ratio, P = Prob-
ability).
Variable analysed (Y)
Variable selected (X) R
R2
F
P
Plasmoid velocity
L/W
0.63
0.40
18.81
0.0002
Number of 0.2 s intervals in
which plasmoid present
Plasmoid width
0.44
0.20
6.88
0.014

Table 9. Summary of events taking place at four “collision events” between pairs of plas-
moids (P1, P2) (L/W = Length/Width ratio).
Collision event
Measure
Before collision During collision After collision
T45
Velocity
P1 increased
P1 decreased
P1/P2 fluctuate

Trajectory
P1 change
P1 change
P1 change

L/W
P1 increased
P1 decreased
P1 increased
T63
Velocity
No change
P2 decreased
P1/P2 increased

Trajectory
No change
P1 change
P2 change

L/W

P1/P2 fluctuate
T72
Velocity
P1/P2 increased Falls to zero
P1/P2 fluctuate

Trajectory
P1 change
P1 change
P1 change

L/W
No change

P1 decreased
T76
Velocity
No change
No change
P1 decreased

Trajectory
P1 change
No change
P1/P2 change

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Figure 48. Estimated velocity (Km 0.2 s−1) and trajectory (angle from vertical) of plasmoid T1.3 which after initial acceleration
travelled at a more or less constant but fluctuating speed before at the point marked (*) made a 163˚ turn and then travelled at an
increasing speed in a new direction.
19.5. Study E: Collisions

Figure 49. Frequency of collisions of plasmoids during the 18.2 s period divided into 2 s intervals.

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Figure 50. Changes in velocity (Km 0.2 s−1) of two “plasmids” (P1, P2) during the “T45 collision event”; C marks the moment of
collision.

Figure 51. The moment of collision between pairs of plasmoids during four separates “collision events”: (a) T45, (b) T63, (c) T72,
and (d) T76.

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In addition to the plasmoid behaviors analyzed previously, an example of more
complex behavior (detailed in Figure 23) was also studied. This behavior was
filmed by mission STS80 over a period of 90 s significantly longer than the “tether
incident” and adjacent to a thunderstorm. Unlike the “tether incident”, there is
no physical structure present in these images which enable an approximate scale
measure to be obtained and consequently, changes in movement are expressed as
pixels travelled in a time interval. During this period a single plasmoid was tracked
and involved in at least five “collision events” (C1 - C5) plus three events in which
the plasmoid appeared to split into a number of smaller structures (Fr). After col-
lision event C4, where the plasmoid collides with another close to thunderstorm
activity, there is a gap in the record in which Image J was unable to distinguish the
plasmoid from the effects of the thunderstorm.

Figure 52. Movement of the plasmoid (pixels travelled per time interval) over 90 s showing
the typical fluctuating pattern with five collision events (C1 - C5) and three events in which
the plasmoid appeared to break up into two or more smaller structures (Fr). The gap be-
tween 58 s and 77 s corresponds to the plasmoid located close to the thunderstorm activity.

Changes in pixels travelled over 90 s is shown in Figure 41. During this period
there are considerable changes in apparent velocity with 4/5 of the collisions ac-
companied by reductions in velocity prior to the collision. In addition, in collision
event 4, the plasmoid reversed direction while adjacent to the thunderstorm. The
data also show the fluctuating pattern of movement first detected over smaller
time scales during the “tether incident”.
Changes in trajectory of the movement shown by the plasmoid over the 90s are
shown in Figure 42. During this period, 4/5 of the collision events were accompa-
nied by considerable changes in angle of trajectory prior to the collisions. Changes
in shape (L/W) of the plasmoid during the 90s are shown in Figure 43 most no-

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table during collision events C1, C3, C4, and C5. In addition, significant changes
in L/W ratio were evident prior to the fragmentation events, the plasmoid break-
ing up into two or more structures.

Figure 53. Changes in the trajectory of the plasmoid over 90 s showing considerable changes in angle prior to the five
collision events (C1 - C5) and the three events in which the plasmoid appeared to break up into two or more fragments (Fr).

Figure 54. Changes in shape (L/W) of the plasmoid over 90 s showing considerable changes prior to the five collision events
(C1 - C5) and the three events in which the plasmoid appeared to break up into two or more fragments (Fr).

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20. Discussion: Quantitative Statistical Analysis of Plasmoid
    Behavior
    This study provides a quantitative analysis of a single event involving plasmoids
    in the thermosphere, i.e., an 18.2s period associated with the detachment of tether
    TSS-IR. Moreover, a variety of complex behavioral phenomena were also visible
    during this event including attraction to and aggregation around the tether, accel-
    eration in a straight line to exceptional velocities (up to 35.6 Km∙s−1), abrupt turns
    in trajectory, collisions with other plasmoids and alterations in shape and velocity.
    Moreover, similar, albeit less frenzied behavior and shape-shifting in the thermo-
    sphere above thunderstorms was also captured on film [3] [5].
    Focusing on the tether incident; first, although plasmoids increased in number
    and aggregated around the tether over 18.2s, this appeared to be a complex process
    in which numbers fluctuated from moment to moment. Moreover, multiple plas-
    moids disappeared and reappeared multiple times; a phenomenon that could be
    related to changes in self-illumination. Numerous plasmas oscillate in brightness
    producing a pattern of bright then faint then bright glowing light. Given that some
    plasmoids may suddenly disappear and then not reappear over the remaining time
    period raises the possibility that they were depleted of energy and “died” or that
    they suddenly streaked off into deep space.
    Second, “plasmoids” appear to show considerable variation in size, the largest
    observed having an area of approximately 4 Km2. The size frequency distribution
    of plasmoids area appears to be highly positively skewed later in the time period
    but it is difficult to determine whether this is attributable to actual variation in
    size among individuals or to their different distances from the tether. This is an
    important distinction as if the first hypothesis is correct, then plasmoids may have
    the ability to “grow” in size over time.
    Third, plasmoids vary considerably in shape [1] [2] with the approximately
    spherical form being the most frequent. Not uncommonly movement of a plas-
    moid is related to changes in shape, with some, especially over thunderstorms,
    assuming elongated forms which contract and expand in an oscillating pattern as
    well as jerks, and changes in shape. These movements are reminiscent of move-
    ment through water. In fact, Alfvén [9]-[12] reports that the movements of plas-
    mas may be “fluid-like” as if passing through currents of water whereas Marino
    and Sorrino-Valvo [13] described movement as “if in water” with properties sim-
    ilar to gases.
    In addition, velocity of a plasmoid appears to be related to L/W ratio, with faster
    moving plasmoids being more asymmetrical. It is possible that movement distorts
    the overall shape of the plasmoid; as is evident when cone-shaped plasmas oscil-
    late in size and brightness, but at rest it settles to a more stable, spherical form
    which encloses a fixed volume via surface tension, a form which minimizes its
    surface area for a specific volume [112].
    Fourth, there are considerable problems in measuring velocity accurately and
    hence, all of the data should be regarded as approximations of the order of mag-

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nitude of the speeds at which the plasmoids were moving. Velocity varied consid-
erably among plasmoids with those measured from a standing start showing first,
a period of very rapid acceleration over the first half a second, followed by a lower
more stable velocity. Nevertheless, this “stability” is illusory with considerable
fluctuations around the mean, i.e., movement of the plasmoid is essentially “jerky”.
The data also suggest that although plasmoids can travel more or less in straight
lines, they also have a considerable ability to change trajectory; in one measured
example, up to 163˚. These changes in trajectory appear to be directed so as to
insect other adjacent plasmoids. Another feature of the data is that although the
tether clearly influenced aggregation of the plasmoids, it appeared to have little
effect on movement of adjacent plasmoids, whereas others appeared from differ-
ent directions and appeared to directly contact the tether.
Fifth, collisions among plasmoids were frequent [1]-[5]. The frequency of col-
lisions depends on density but individual collisions are accompanied by consid-
erable changes in the trajectory and velocity of colliding plasmoids. Each of four
collision events studied was unique but changes in velocity, trajectory, and/or
shape were evident.
On specific plasma among group of plasmas near the tether and showing rel-
atively little movement, was pierced by four different plasmas coming from dif-
ferent directions, three of which were moving at a rapid velocity, whereas the
fourth had been adjacent and unmoving until the final few seconds [3]. Likewise,
in Figure 4, one plasma changed direction and merged with and sequentially
intersected four different plasmas that remained relatively stable and unmoving.
As noted, plasmas will eject what resembles streams of bright cloudy particles
in their wake both before and after they collide. A small-scale example of this phe-
nomenon can also be observed in Figure 13 (T76 collision event), which results
in a thin trail of material joining the two plasmoids. This “dust trail” could be the
physical consequences of material being removed as a result of the collision or
more speculatively, that it involves a transfer of material from one “plasmoid” to
another.
In addition, some will secrete, eject, or create a “messenger” plasma that will
interact with other plasmas, often triggering a response such that the plasma con-
tacted with travel toward and make contact with an adjacent plasma or the plasma
that ejected the “messenger” plasma (Figure 3). In yet another sequence, a plasma
that had intersected other plasmas, turned and followed a plasmoid coming from
another direction, which in turn appeared to release a small mini-plasma in its
wake which approached the plasma that was following which reversed course and
headed in the opposite direction.
Therefore, it is reasonable to ask: are these complex behaviors “purposeful” and
indicative of a fourth domain of life (a hypothesis favored by these authors) or are
they merely “push pull” electromagnetic phenomenon? Yet another possibility:
some are “alive” others are not.

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21. Quantitative Statistical Analysis Study Two:
    Plasmoid Morphology
    In order to further study plasmoid morphology and variation, and establish the
    possible relationships among those with differing shape and size, we employed
    “Deep Learning” (DL) to analyze the images. DL employs a machine learning pat-
    tern recognition “algorithm.” As data and new data are processed, the algorithm
    “learns” to optimize its various operations, thus gradually improving its perfor-
    mance and accuracy. Hence, the objective of this article was to apply DL to a sam-
    ple of 32 images of individual plasmoids and to address the following questions:

1. how many distinct types of plasmoid were there within the sample, 2) how were
   the different morphological types related, 3) do the analyses suggest a hypothesis
   regarding the formation and subsequent development of the plasmoids?
   Based on these results, we performed additional analyses employing “Hierar-
   chical clustering (HC)” and “Multidimensional scaling (MDS).” As will be de-
   tailed, these quantitative analysis confirmed that the majority of the plasmoids
   exhibit distinct and complex morphologies and many are comprised of aggregations
   of spherical or more irregular-shaped plasmoid subunits (“botryoidal”) whereas
   others were cloud-like, amorphous and/or had a single condensed, sculpted form.

Figure 55. Examples of unusual types of plasmoid morphology: (a) Wedge-shaped with sculpted external surface, (b), (c) Wedge-
shaped and composite with appearance resembling a “bunch of grapes” (botryoidal), (d) Irregular ellipse with sculpted external
surface and a possible appendage or tail [112].

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21.1. Methods: Morphological Analysis
21.1.1. Images
Analyses of individual plasmoids [112] were based on video footage recorded
by various Space shuttle missions [3]. The original NASA film was digitized using
Apple Final Cut Pro. Freeze-frame images of individual plasmoids were then pro-
cessed using “Fotor” image enhancement software and one or more of these fea-
tures were applied: anti-blur, and adjustment of brightness, contrast, or sharpness
[1] [2]. In addition, to enhance internal features, “Fotor” red, blue, and green fil-
ters were applied as these filters can enhance spectra embedded in the original
frames. This process can identify and define shapes within shapes, based on dif-
ferent spectra and gray values of each specimen and the “shape-spectra” of various
outer and inner aspects of the specimen.
21.1.2. Analysis of Morphology
The sample of 32 images was analyzed by Armstrong et al. [112] using Orange
data mining software (version 3.35.0) together with various post hoc Image Ana-
lytics, including “hierarchical clustering” (HC) and “multidimensional scaling”
(MDS). Images were input as PNG files for compatibility with Orange software
and then “embedded” using “Google Inception V3 deep convolutional neural net-
work learning” which extracts 2048 column vectors from each image representing
morphology, color, and texture (reviewed by Armstrong et al. [112]). The col-
umns were “normalized” to ensure equal weighting of all 2048 vectors. “Dis-
tances” were then computed among the vector columns using the “cosine metric”
which reflects the degree of similarity among the plasmoids.
The data were then subject to two further analyses: 1) HC (using the default
“Ward” method) and which results in a dendrogram obtained from the calculated
distances and essentially attempts to “classify” the plasmoids into groups and 2)
MDS which displays the relationships between the plasmoids spatially in 2D or
3D, the distances between plasmoids reflecting their degree of similarity. In addi-
tion, MDS provides several further insights into the similarities among the plas-
moids, first, by indicating which pairs of plasmoids exhibit affinities (by joining
them with a line) and second, by the size of the round symbol representing the
plasmoid, larger sizes indicating less confidence in the validity of the pairing, as
the 2D display is an approximation to the multi-dimensional model [112]. Fur-
thermore, various morphological features, e.g., shape, degree of illumination, sur-
face texture, presence of tails, and edge detail can be plotted onto the MDS to
determine which aspects of morphology were most important in determining the
similarities among plasmoids.
21.2. Results: Morphological Analysis

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Figure 56. Hierarchical clustering (HC) of the sample of 32 plasmoids. All individual plasmoids (P1 - P32) are located to the left
and are progressively joined from right to left to form a dendrogram [112].

The HC which classifies the 32 plasmoids is shown in Figure 2(X). From right
to left, individual plasmoids were successively combined with those that they re-
sembled most closely and then the groups were joined so that ultimately, all plas-
moids were combined into a single group. Changes in “linkage distance” as groups
were successively joined moving from right to left was used to determine how
many groups should be retained. As linkage distance increased, larger and larger
groups were formed but result from the amalgamations of groups with a greater
degree of diversity. A clear discontinuity in linkage distance indicated that many
groups are being amalgamated at the same linkage distance and this level can be
used as an approximate “cut-off” to determine the number of groups to retain. In
the present analysis, this discontinuity occurs at a linkage distance of approxi-
mately 0.38 units and indicates the presence of seven groups of plasmoids (Groups
A to G) and two individual “outliers” (P18 and P32) (Table 10).
Group A appeared to be the most consistent morphologically (N = 5), and
comprised highly illuminated shapes, lacking tails, and with a complex “botryoi-
dal” type surface. Group B (N = 5) was similar to group A, but 3/5 plasmoids
showed evidence of a tail. The two plasmoids comprising group C (P17, P27) were
more similar to group A, but lacked tails while group D (N = 2) did not appear to
be closely related to each other or to the other groups. Group E (N = 6) comprised
various shapes, full or partly illuminated, a botryoidal surface, and serrated edge

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Table 10. Characteristics of the seven groups of plasmoids (A - G) and two outliers (P18,
P32) identified by the hierarchical classification (HC), NE = Not evident.
Group Shape
Illumination Internal
cavity
Surface
texture
“Tail”
Edge
structure
A
Various
Full
NE
Botryoidal
No
Various
B
Various
Mainly Full
P18
Botryoidal
3/5 with tail
Various
C
Various
Full
NE
Various
No
Various
D
Various
Full/Part
P2
Botryoidal
No
Various
E
Various
Full/Part
NE
Botryoidal
No
Serrated
F
Wedge
Full/Part
P7
Various
2/5 with tail
Serrated
G
Various
Full
P5,P12
Various
No
Serrated
H
Various
Full/Part
P29
Various
1/2 with tail
Various
(P18)
Ellipse
Part
NE
Botryoidal
2 tails
Smooth
(P32)
Ellipse
Part
Yes
Irregular
Long tail
Smooth

with no visible evidence of an internal cavity. Group F (N = 5) was largely wedge-
shaped, variously illuminated, had a varied surface texture, 2/5 had tails, and a
largely serrated edge. Group G (N = 5) comprised various shapes, two plasmoids
had evidence of an internal cavity, one with a tail, a complex surface texture, and
a serrated edge. Two plasmoids (P18, P28) were not closely related to any of these
groups, both were elliptical and only partly illuminated, with long tails and a
smooth edge.
To investigate the relationships of the plasmoids in more detail, the images were
also analyzed using MDS (Figure 3). The MDS indicated that the 32 plasmoids
were best described as forming a single large cluster within which no clear group-
ings were evident. Two plasmoids (P17 and P27, Figure 4) and a possible third
(P31) appeared to be outliers with few connections to the main cluster. In addi-
tion, there were four plasmoids (P2, P16, P18, and P32, Figure 5) which had no
connections with the main cluster or with each other.
The extent to which the seven groups identified by the HC were distinct from
each other can be observed in Figure 6, in which the boundaries of the groups A
to G are plotted onto the MDS. The most distinct grouping is group A which is
also represented by consistently small-sized symbols indicating high confidence
in their relative positioning. Nevertheless, the plasmoids in group A were also
closely related to some individuals in groups C, B, and E, although these groups
did not overlap. By contrast, plasmoids in group A were not closely related to
those in groups D, F, or group G; group G appearing particularly difficult to define
as it overlapped with groups E and F. Figure 6 confirmed the status of P18 and
P32 as outliers but P2 and P16 did appear to have a closer relationship with the
main clusters.

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Figure 57. Multidimensional scaling (MDS) of the sample of 32 plasmoids (P1 - P32). Plasmoids with similar morphological char-
acteristics are joined, the distance between them representing the degree of similarity. The size of the symbol representing each
plasmoid indicates the degree of confidence in its location in the 2D representation [112].

Figure 58. The two plasmoids: (a) (P17, (b) P27 identified as “outliers” to the main cluster on the MDS [112].

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Figure 59. Four plasmoids (a) P2, (b) P6, (c) P18 and (d) P32 with no connections to the main cluster or with each other identified
by the MDS [112].

Figure 60. The seven groups (A - G) of plasmoids (P1 - P32) identified by HC plotted on MDS [112].

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To determine which characteristics best explain variation in plasmoid mor-
phology, each individual feature was plotted on the MDS. For example, plotting
the various plasmoid shapes (Figure 7) suggested that those towards the top of
the plot were more likely to be wedge-shaped. Moreover, those plasmoids with a
distinct appendage or tail were more likely to be located towards the right and
lower region of the cluster. By contrast, illumination, surface texture, or edge char-
acteristics were less important in determining the distribution of the plasmoids.
21.3. Discussion: Morphology
DL clearly indicated that the sample of plasmoids was heterogenous as dis-
cussed in detail by Armstrong et al [112]. Although the HC successfully separated
the 32 plasmoids into seven groups (A - G), the MDS indicates that apart from
one relatively distinct group (group A), this heterogeneity could be best described
as forming a single continuously varying cluster plus a series of “outliers” not
closely related to the main cluster. Within the main cluster, plasmoid shape and
whether or not an appendage or tail was present appeared to be the main deter-
minants of the observed variation [112].
Application of image analysis to the plasmoids [112] revealed that many of
them exhibited a complex morphology and appeared to be composed of multiple
subunits (spherical or more complex in shape) with a proportion exhibiting an
internal space or “voids” or varying shapes and sizes [1] [2]; and similar observa-
tions have been reported for plasmas created in a laboratory [73]. It was also con-
firmed that those referred to as Hunters display external tails that may consist of
plasma and dust [1] [2].
22. Plasmoids: There Are at Least Four Behavior Types (A)
Hunters (B) Grazers (C) Floaters (D) Thunderstorm
Divers
Electric currents produce magnetic fields. Charge separation causes electric fields.
Therefore, plasma may engage in completely different behaviors, depending on
their density, and intensity of their surrounding electric currents and magnetic
fields, including those generated by other plasmoids. Plasmas may be pumping
electrical energy from one plasma to the next, via twisted filaments and ropes
called “Birkeland currents.” Moreover, increasing or decreasing their surrounding
electric currents will correspond increase or decrease in their velocity. In conse-
quence, and relying upon the descriptions first employed by Sagan [17] and de-
pending on their size, shape, density, and charge, some plasma in the thermo-
sphere appear to behave as “Hunters” and others as “Grazers” (scavengers) and
“Thunderstorm Divers” and those that remain relatively unmoving could be clas-
sified as “Floaters” [16].
(A) Hunters. Hunters are active, energetic, have various shapes and display at
least nine types of hunting behavior which different Hunters may adopt depend-
ing on variables unknown at this time.

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1. Hunters move at hyper-speeds in a relatively straight line piercing multiple
   Floaters and Grazers.
2. Hunters that move at hyper speeds are elongated and wiggle snake- and ac-
   cordion-like as they strike and pierce multiple floaters and grazers.
3. Hunters also move relatively slowly and may be cloud or cone shaped.
4. Hunters may move relatively slowly then rapidly speed up and change direc-
   tion.
5. Hunters will remain stationary for long periods, then begin moving slowly as
   they target and strike and pierce other plasmoids. It is possible these are Grazers
   that also hunt.
6. Hunters will change direction and collide with other Hunters that have also
   changed direction, or with Grazers that have moved into a position and then re-
   main stable only to be pierced.
7. Hunters will eject streams of glowing clouds or particles before or after they
   strike.
8. Hunters may appear as dim-shadows that may or may not become illumi-
   nated.
9. Hunters may suddenly materialize and appear fully illuminated.
10. Cone-bulbous-shaped hunters may oscillate in size and illumination as they
    approach or pass by a Floater or a Grazer. The waxing and waning in size are
    directly related to propulsion.
    (B) Grazers. Grazers are semi-passive plasmas and are presumed to be grazing
    feeding on electromagnetic energy. Grazers may have cloud, ring, or cone shapes
    and may be targeted by Hunters. Behaviorally there are at least four types of Graz-
    ers.
11. Grazers that move slowly and may stop and remain stationary.
12. Grazer that were stationary and then slowly moved to another location.
13. Grazers that keep moving, albeit slowly in variable changing directions.
14. Grazers may appear as dim-shadows that may or may not become illumi-
    nated.
    (C) Floaters. Floaters generally have cloud shapes and are passive plasmas and
    are so named because they remain “relatively” stationary.
15. Floaters float alone or congregate in groups of three or more that remain
    relatively close together.
16. A single Floater in a group of Floaters may attract multiple Hunters which
    target and sequentially strike that Floater while ignoring the others.
17. Floaters in groups are sometimes interconnected via cloud-like spokes.
18. Floaters in groups—filmed near a satellite tether generating electromagnetic
    impulses into the space medium—also appear to be connected to cloudy networks
    of electromagnetic “ropes”, “cable” tubular loops that appear to have multiple
    mini-bud-like protrusions (Figure 60). These “ropes” are twisted strands of very
    thick plasmas.
19. It is probable that “Floaters” are outgrowths of these electromagnetic net-

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works of plasmodic “ropes” and “chains” and once free of these “ropes”, these
Floaters may become “Grazers.”
6. It is also possible these electromagnetic chain-ropes attract plasmas which
may remain stationary only because they are drawing energy from these looping
ropes; and this might explain why “Floaters” are targeted by Hunters and even
Grazers; i.e. as a source of energy.
(D) Thunderstorm Divers. Pulsating, brightly illuminated plasmas commonly
propel themselves toward and dive into lightning storms.

1. Typically they arrive singling or in pairs, from multiple directions in the ther-
   mosphere, and slowly descend into the storm without burning up.
2. Almost all oscillate with light. However, different plasmas may display dif-
   ferent patterns and speeds of oscillation, with some brightly illuminated and glow-
   ing and others displaying and on-off illuminated only within their interior.
3. Those who arrive alone or only in pairs, may join together with others that
   have descended into the storms. Most likely it is these thunderstorm divers that
   account for many UAP/UFO sightings.
4. Thunderstorm divers not only dive but will ascend from storms, either alone,
   or in groups of four or more, sometimes forming V formations that will pace the
   space shuttles.

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Figure 61. Hunting and collisionality. Filmed by STS 75.

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Figure 62. Filmed by STS 48. Specimen circled in red, strike first one (circled in white) then changes course by over 45 degrees to
strike two additional specimens (circled in white).

Figure 63. Filmed by STS 75. Collisionality (Energy Cannibalism?). Plasma (red arrow) alters direction after merging.

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Figure 64. Filmed by STS 101. The white box plasma materialized, followed Red Circle plasma, intersecting the same plasma Red
Circle penetrated. Red and White make contact and White continues toward the thunderstorm. Red Circle ejects a smaller plasma
circled in green, which makes contact with White Box Plasma which reverses course, contacts White Circle Plasma. These interac-
tions could be interpreted as communication, intelligence, social behavior.

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23. Solar Plasmodic Electromagnetic Flux “Ropes”
    and “Cables”
    Analysis of NASA space shuttle footage employing Fotor BGR filters revealed net-
    works of “ropes”, “cables”, and “chains” completely surrounding an electrified
    tether (Figures 59, Figures 60). These are likely twisted strands of plasma with a
    tubular geometry as commonly detected in the magnetosphere, and which trans-
    mit electric currents from one region of the magnetosphere to another [31] [113]-
    [117]. The sun emits an electrically conducting plasma which streams radially out-
    ward at supersonic speeds of about 500 km/s into interplanetary space thereby
    producing a solar wind which consists of electrons, protons, and ions, including
    Helium ions all of which becomes increasingly dilute as the plasma wind expands
    radially and with increased distance from the sun [113]-[118].
    This outflow of plasma is the result of the supersonic expansion of the solar
    corona and consists of high-temperature fast particles, electrons and ions which
    reach velocities ranging from 300 km/s and 1500 km/s thereby enabling this ejecta
    to overcome solar gravitation and escape into interplanetary space [113]-[118].
    However, even as it flows through space, this plasmodic wind remains electrically
    highly conducting, acting as a superconductor and forms an interplanetary mag-
    netic field. Once the solar wind traveling at supersonic speed hits Earth’s dipole
    magnetic field, it is deflected and slowed down and a bow shock wave is generated
    in front of Earth. In consequence, a substantial fraction of the solar wind particles”
    kinetic energy is converted into thermal energy whereas the remainder continues
    to serve as a highly conducting plasma consisting mainly of electrons, protons,
    ions, and highly charged particles and dust and debris [14]-[15] [113]-[118].
    These highly charged plasmas are distributed in a variety of directions and can
    form interlinked networks of plasmodic rope-chain-cables that generate electric
    currents and electromagnetic fields from which globular, cellular plasmas may
    form and bulge outward. In Figure 59, the topography of the solar-terrestrial-
    atmospheric environment can be discerned, with the sun located to the far lower
    right of the tether. The solar wind is therefore blowing against the terrestrial-up-
    per atmospheric (geomagnetic) field. Although fragmented cables are apparent in
    almost all quadrants of this film footage as depicted in published freeze frames,
    those closest to the tether, are coiled together forming interconnected networks
    of looping cables (Figure 59 & Figure 60). This suggests that tether is amplifying
    the charge of the plasma flux ropes.
24. Ionization, Electric Fields and Plasmoid Origins
    It is believed that plasmas in space and the thermosphere react to and may form
    cellular entities in response to a number of interacting forces, including intermit-
    tent turbulence, geomagnetic storms, coronal mass ejections, solar flares, eclipses,
    the waxing and waning of sunlight, and atmospheric waves coupled with ioniza-
    tion [1] [13] [119] [120]. When ionized, the result is a plasma.
    As predicted by Maxwell’s equations and as has been since confirmed, electric

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fields and powerful stellar magnetic fields are abundant in space [31] [97] [121]-
[124] Likewise, cosmic rays are electrically charged. Planets, including Earth also
have global electric fields which affect the upper atmosphere as determined by
NASA’s Endurance mission [125]. Thus, the upper atmosphere and the space
around Earth are filled with electrons, protons, and energy created by interactions
between the Earth’s magnetic field, solar wind, and cosmic rays—as well as dust
and debris from shattered meteorites—all of which contribute to the creation and
behavior of double layered plasmoids in the thermosphere.
Specifically, as charged particles enter Earth’s upper atmosphere and strip away
electrons from atoms, the remaining protons, neutrons and particles become ion-
ized with a net positive charge which repel, whereas those electrons that have been
stripped away have a negative charge and form negative ions; all of which respond
to electrical and magnetic fields thereby forming negative and positive double lay-
ers that simultaneously repel and attract yet preventing the layers from merging
[8]-[9] [11]-[12] [31]. Thus, plasma in the thermosphere become encapsulated
with cellular layers. When dust, cosmic debris, and shattered remnants of mete-
orites are incorporated within a plasma, and if charged, they may trigger the cre-
ation of encapsulating double layers and the composite is referred to as a “dusty
plasma” [1] [69].
In addition, positive ions, which are the major constituent of the solar wind,
accelerate outward from the sun and form plasma filaments, ropes, cables and
tubes [14] [15] [69] [126]-[129]. The spacecraft Ulysses, for example, discovered
long plasma tubes (Birkeland currents) extending from the south pole of the sun
as far out as Mars.
25. Electromagnetic Networks of Flux “Ropes” and “Cables”
Discovered in the Thermosphere?
Electric currents commonly form twisting plasma filaments; e.g., in lightning, the
penumbrae of sunspots, and the sun’s photosphere and looping prominences. Ga-
lactic and solar electromagnetic impulses coupled with Earth’s magnetic field and
plasmasphere also interact and produce auroras and donut shaped magnetic fila-
ments that twist, curve, loop and spiral together forming double layered ropes and
cables of plasma tubes [9] [10] [31] [113] [114] [126] [129] [130].
These plasmodic circuits of magnetic flux rope-chains are prevalent throughout
the upper atmosphere but usually require specialized optical equipment to detect
them. This is because these plasma-rope-chain-cables only become “visible” in
highly energized environments, such as above the sun and in the upper atmos-
phere, where they appear as multi-colored sheets, filaments, and clouds of plasma,
i.e. auroras [10] [11] [31] [126] [127] [130].
Long filaments, cables and ropes of magnetized plasma are also produced by
electric current which tend to follow magnetic fields. An electric current is caused
by high voltage which creates an electric field (Pratt, 1992). The stronger the cur-
rent the stronger the electric field. A strong looping current will produce donut

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shaped magnetic fields and filaments [10] [11] [31] [121]-[124]. These filaments
have been characterized as magnetic flux tubes and cables which form tangled
loops.
The formation of filaments, strings, cables, ropes are common throughout the
cosmos and form endless circles and spirals: an infinite helix-all referred to as
“field aligned currents.” The size of the spiral helix is determined by the strength
of the magnetic field—as strength increases and the spiral will tighten forming
chains as can be visualized in Figure 56, Figure 60.
Portions of the chains may begin to assume cellular forms as they bulge out and
“break off” (Figure 57, Figure 58). Once a double layered “dusty” plasma is
formed, they and the dust and debris internalized, may continue to spiral forming
an internal helix. This may also cause positively and negatively charged particles
and debris to diffuse together, creating bright illuminated arc discharges; also
known as ambipolar diffusion. When these particles interact—including and es-
pecially those within the plasma layers, they generate electric fields which affect
their motion.
These electromagnetic rope-chains typically have a tubular geometry and have
been produced in the laboratory and observed in a variety of astrophysical settings
[10]-[12] [31] [81] [82] [97] [115]-[118] [122]. The most active areas of the sun,
for example, produce flux ropes that not uncommonly form chains and loops
(Figure 54).
These magnetic twisting ropes flow with the solar wind—a function of interac-
tions with the magnetic fields and magnetic clouds produced by coronal mass
ejections and are affected by the south-then-north tilt of the magnetic field [31]
[115] [116]. In the upper atmosphere of Earth, these rope-chains also interact with
charged particles, leading to phenomena like filmy-cloudy auroras, which are in
fact twisted strands of plasmas that resemble sheets and filaments of ghostly wavy
light [126] [127] [130]. These rope-cable-chains, therefore, are electromagnetic
plasmas that produce additional plasmas that can take a variety of shapes and
forms, e.g. auroras.

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Figure 65. The Sun. Solar flares. Photos by NASA.

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Figure 66. (Left) Simulation of giant storms of plasma flux ropes and magnetic fields propelled from the southern and northern
poles of the sun. Credit: NASA, Homa Karimabadi, University of California, San Diego. (Right) Plasma flux ropes and Earth’s
plasmasphere/magnetosphere.

Figure 67. Simulations of plasma electromagnetic flux ropes and cables enveloping and entering the “hole” in Earth’s northern polar
magnetic field and forming loops, spirals, and helixes. Credit NASA.
26. Some Plasmoids Are Formed by or Obtain Energy from
Networks of Electromagnetic Flux “Cables”?
One of the goals of the STS 75 shuttle mission was to release a satellite tether, 12
miles in length, that generated electromagnetic impulses into the surrounding
space medium. After 19 of 24 kilometers of conducting tether was released, and
producing 400 volts of an expected 7000 volts, plasmas began flowing toward the
tether and there was a powerful electrical discharge that burned through the tether
which continued to generate electromagnetic activity. Over the course of the next
12 hours, dozens, then hundreds of self-illuminated “plasmas” began appearing

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next to and streaming toward and even making contact with and appearing to
crawl upon the tether [3] [5]. Many of these plasmoids were highly energetic and
engaged in a frenzy of activity (e.g. Hunters). Others were less active (Grazers/Scav-
engers) with some (Floaters) remaining relatively stationary.
To detect differences in gray scales and identify boundaries, shapes and forms,
Fotor BRG filters were employed to analyze tether-incident STS 75 freeze frames,
and especially those regions of the densest plasmoid activity around the TSS-IR.
The Fotor BGR filters revealed thick coiling networks of what can best be de-
scribed as magnetic plasma “ropes” “cables” and “chains” (Figure 57, Figure 59,
Figure 60). These magnetic ropes and chains are commonly detected via special-
ized instruments and cameras in the magnetosphere and other regions of space
and consist of twisted strands of plasma that coil and group together due to mag-
netic attraction [10] [115] [131]-[135]. However, they have never before been vis-
ualized in the thermosphere. Therefore, we can only speculate based on very lim-
ited data. In this regard it is reasonable to hypothesize that these “rope” “cables”
were made visible due to absorption of electromagnetic pulses generated into
space by the TSS-IR. Some plasmoids (Floaters) appear to be attached to and may
have been produced by these magnetic “rope” “cables” which also have smaller
protrusions or “buds” (Figure 60).
In the context of the “tether incident” the Fotor filters revealed that plasmas
identified as “Floaters” appear to be attached to these magnetic rope chains which
also have numerous bud-like protrusions (Figure 60). According to Alfven [9]-
[12] plasmas are often embedded in these rope cables.
It has been documented that electric current flow in space, forming filaments
whereas plasma cells form around regions of filaments. Therefore, it is reasonable
to suspect that “Floaters” are attached to and may be outgrowths of these thermo-
sphere electromagnetic rope-chains. Or, conversely, that independent plasmoids
will attach to these rope chains which provide energy. This may also explain why
some “Hunters” will target specific “Floaters” which may be pierced by at least 4
different Hunters in less than 20 seconds; i.e. like bees drawn to a flower in bloom.
That is, those “Floaters” still attached to these plasmodic electromagnetic ropes
may be providing an additional source of energy to Hunters which seek them out.
Speculation is also probable that Floaters may later detach from these rope ca-
bles and become “Grazers” or even “Hunters.” Most likely vast plasma rope-cable
networks are prevalent throughout the upper atmosphere and may be continually
giving birth to the plasmoids.
Plasmas obey the laws of electromagnetism. Electrostatic pressures and extreme
electrical stress cause excessive current densities on their surfaces. Although inter-
nal electrostatic forces prevent these plasma ropes and cables from collapsing, the
layers of these plasma tubes may begin to pinch together, causing them to split off
and form additional plasmas. Depending on their density and intensity of charge,
these newly fashioned plasma may remain in a dark mode or become illuminated.
In addition, these newly formed “independent” cellular plasmas may remain

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relatively stationary, or move about slowly, or engage in a frenzy of behavior and
engage in collisionality and energy cannibalism [1]. Therefore, to speculate, these
putative magnetic ropes, cables, strings, tubes, may sprout additional plasmas
which, in response to electromagnetic pressures, bulge outward and form and
pinch off multi-layered cellular structures (Figure 57).

Figure 68. Simulations of plasma electromagnetic flux ropes and cables forming loops, spirals, and
helixes and cellular walls within the thermosphere.

Figure 69. Plasmas in the thermosphere congregate and form interlinking plasmas. Note multi-layers
and nucleus. Processed with Fotor Blue, Green, Red Filters that identify grey scales. Filmed by STS 80.

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Figure 70. STS 75. A 12 miles in length tether generating electromagnetic pulses into the space medium, surrounded by plasmoids
engaging in complex behavior. Note what resembles curved strands of “rope” in the background. These are most likely plasmatic
magnetic flux “ropes” and “cables” which have become highly charged due to the electromagnetic radiation from the tether.

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Figure 71. This Figure is a magnification of the white square area of Figure 16. Shape shifting plasmas often appear to consist of
multiple mini-plasma, and in some films and photographs, shadowy shape shifting plasmodic forms can be discerned (entity at the
top). Note the elongated darker thick-rope-cable-like forms several of which have numerous “buds” and plasmoids attached. These
can also be discerned in Figure 16 most of which are curved and form looping networks. Processed via Fotor BGR filters to detect
and emphasize differences in pixilated grey scales. These magnetic plasmodic flux “ropes” may have become highly charged by the
electrified tether thereby making them visible.

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27. Plasmodic Brains? Solar Plasmodic Electromagnetic
    “Virtual Neural Networks”?
    Patterns found in nature repeat themselves to infinity and can give rise to sym-
    metry; that is, patterned self-similarity. In physics and math, the repetition of pat-
    terns is true of time, space, scaling, rotation, and functional transformations [24]
    [25] [136] [137] as well as neural networks, dendritic trees, and the functioning of
    the brain [19] [20]. If the plasma ropes in the thermosphere also function like
    neural networks, and if the same patterns repeat within the interior of a plasmoid,
    then, those networks might provide the foundation for intelligent behavior.
    Plasma in the thermosphere will congregate above thunderstorms and descend
    into the lower atmosphere. This behavior may account for many of the sightings
    of what are now referred to as UAP/UFO but which have also been called “Foo
    Fighters” and by a legion of other names over the centuries [1] [2] [138]. Accord-
    ing to Navy pilots and personnel these entities were aware they were under obser-
    vation and engaged in purposeful “intelligent” behavior [1] [40]-[41] [139]. Based
    on this evidence and eyewitness accounts these complex, communicative and in-
    teractive behaviors appear directed and purposeful and under “intelligent control”
    [1] [2]. It is therefore reasonable to hypothesize that some plasmas/plasmoids—
    especially Hunters and those that descend into the lower atmosphere—are “sen-
    tient” “aware” display “intelligence” and constitute a fourth domain of life that
    dwells primarily in the upper atmospheres of Earth.
    It has also been documented that plasmoids in the thermosphere (and those
    generated experimentally) contain internal glowing spheres that are not uncom-
    monly associated with radiating arcs that connect these spheres to the outer mem-
    brane layers or to other adjacent internal spheres. It has been speculated that these
    could be construed as plasmoid genomes or neural ganglia connected to nerve
    nets [2], i.e. neural networks, similar to the nervous system of planarians, the com-
    mon earthworm, and insects (Figure 15).
    As pointed out by Langmuir [6]-[8] and Alfven [10]-[12] plasmoid double lay-
    ers are electric and can transmit and exchange energy from one layer to another
    or to and from the nucleus thereby forming circuits or networks of excitation that
    include gaseous electrical discharges. According to Alfven [10]-[12] and Lang-
    muir [6]-[8] when highly excited, double layered plasmas will discharge gases and
    electrical impulses-attributes that are common among plasmas in the thermo-
    sphere and the sun [14] [15] [31] [115] [118] [126] [127], e.g., solar flares, coronal
    discharges, magnetic substorms (Figures 54-56). It is well established that plas-
    mas (Hunters) in the thermosphere commonly discharge cloudy streams of
    plasma in their wake as they approach other plasmas, and during and after they
    have made contact: reminiscent of the release of chemicals at neuronal-axon-den-
    drite synaptic junctions.
    These plasmodic interactions could also be considered analogous to the activity
    of neurons which, when highly excited, will generate an electromagnetic action
    potential down the length of an axon. The excited axon will then release chemicals

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or electrical impulses into a synaptic gap that adjoins the dendrites of other neu-
rons. These action potential electromagnetic nerve impulses can also be likened
to a plasma. It is these interactions and interconnections between the axons and
dendrites of neurons in various regions of the neocortex which provide the sub-
strate for perceptual experience and various aspects of consciousness [140]-[155].
These putative electromagnetic-rope-cable networks discovered in the the ther-
mosphere, in some respects, resemble and may also function in a manner some-
what similar to the “neural circuity” of the brain which also generates electromag-
netic fields (Figure 61-63).
The human nervous system consists of around 80 billion neurons which, when
excited, transmit electrified “action potentials” down the length of their axon to a
synaptic gap junction. Electricity and/or clouds of chemical neurotransmitters are
then released into the gap junction, exciting dendritic receptors that lead to yet
another neuron which may transmit the information received to yet another neu-
ron or a host of neurons, via actions potentials propagated along the length of its
axons (Figure 61). These neural circuits-vast bundles of insulated cables-enable
different brain areas to communicate and share information and contribute to the
experience of conscious-awareness [140]-[155]. Consider also that dusty upper
atmospheric plasmoids have likely incorporated not only all the ingredients for
fashioning RNA and DNA, but innumerable bacteria, algae, fungi, lichens, plants,
insects, fish-eggs—and other organisms and their DNA—lofted into the thermo-
sphere. Insect and fish-egg DNA codes for a nervous system.

Figure 72. Neuron (Nerve cell).

As noted: Navy pilots have claimed that UAPS (which are most likely plasmas)
behave with intelligence and have awareness of their surroundings. Therefore, to
speculate: these networks of plasmoid-rope-chains and the internal ganglia-
spheres identified within plasmas may also function like neural networks and gen-

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erate and provide an electromagnetic substrate for plasmodic awareness.
Many scientists agree: plasma is a fourth state of matter, the highest energy state
of matter, and much of the universe, perhaps up to 99.8% consists of plasma [10]-
[12] [14] [15] [31] [97]-[99] [156]. There is also a direct association between the
functioning of the brain and plasma physics [157]-[159] and the production of
electromagnetic waves with estimated frequencies of 0.5 to 100 Hz and with an
amplitude of 110 to 4μV [160]. The neurons of the brain interact via electrical
impulses-the action potential—which often involve the release of various neuro-
transmitters at synaptic junctions; i.e. from an axon to dendrite [148]-[150] [155]
[161].
However, whereas plasma is a form of matter, electricity is not considered to be
a “state of matter” but pure energy released by the flow of electrons: an electro-
magnetic property shared with neurons and lightning which is a plasma that gen-
erates transient plasmas, and which attracts plasmoids in the thermosphere that
gather above and descend into thunderstorms; whereas the brain radiates electro-
magnetic waves [160] and shares functional characteristics with plasma physics
[157]-[160] and plasma-lightning share basic functional principles with nerve cell
activity [159].
28. Electricity, Lightning and Nerve Cell Conduction
That electricity and nerve cell conduction are directly related may have been first
documented by Luigi Galvani, who in 1780, wired a frog to a metal railing and
when lighting struck observed wild twitching of the frog’s legs. In 1803 by Gio-
vanni Aldini used a battery-powered pair of conducting rods to shock various
parts of the body of a recently executed criminal, George Forster. Foster’s arms
flew up, his hands clenched, and his eyes and mouth opened and closed. Thus, the
direct connection between electricity and neural activity was established hundreds
of years ago [59]-[61].
Electricity and lightning in fact shares analogous features with the action po-
tential that travels from the neuron down the length of the axon. In brief: different
areas of the brain and linked together and communicate via neurons which send
an electrical signals-an action potential-from the neuron’s cell body down the
length of an appendage, an axon. This electrical impulse travels to a synaptic gap
junction and then excites a dendritic appendage of the receiving neuron. The ac-
tion potential is an electrical impulse and travels down the axon as positively
charged ions flow across the neuron’s axonal membrane. Electrical impulses,
therefore, serve as the primary means of communication between neurons and are
triggered when the neuron’s membrane potential reach around −50 mV thereby
triggering a positive charge down the length of the axon. These positive electrical
charges could be likened to a lighting bolt and thus, plasma.
As determined by Persinger [159]: “The space-time characteristics of the axonal
action potential are remarkably similar to the scaled equivalents of lightning. The
energy and current densities from these transients within their respective volumes

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or cross-sectional areas are the same order of magnitude. Length–velocity ratios
and temporal durations are nearly identical... The wave shape characteristics of
action potentials and lightning flashes are similar.” Persinger [159] also argues
that “all of the fundamental frequencies and patterns of EEG activity are similar
to local electric field configurations” during thunder-storms and Schumann
(earth–ionospheric) resonances which are produced by lightning.
Consider this analogy: it is well established that dendrites are covered with den-
dritic spines which also receive axonal impulses. If repeatedly activated, they also
grow in size, whereas if deprived of input, the dendrite and axon will shrink and
become non-functional [140]-[143] [161] Likewise, the electromagnetic plasmoid
chain-rope-cables in the thermosphere are also punctuated with bulbous spines
that may grow and produce, or conversely, attract “Floaters.” It is noteworthy that
Nitric oxide diffuses freely across neural membranes during neurotransmission
and is produced in neurons in response to action potential-dependent release of
glutamate [155]. However, about 25% of NO within the biosphere is formed by
lightning discharges [162]. Lighting and electricity have also been considered es-
sential for the creation of all the necessary elements and nucleotides to create a
living organism [63]-[65].
Lightning, electromagnetic activity, are linked to the origins of life and nerve
cell conduction. This leads us back to self-illuminating plasmas which are electro-
magnetic entities that are associated with plasmodic rope networks that are charged
and which interact via the release of electrically charged clouds of plasma and dust
particles. Plasmas give off light, and it is well established that neural activity can
be altered or suppressed by light introduced via optic micro-fibers [163]-[165].
Light is not a plasma, but a form of energy; i.e. electromagnetic radiation that travels
as waves and is made up of particles called photons. However, all light is produced
by plasma, the sun being a primary source of light in this solar system.
The brain is a plasmodic electromagnetic organ which is affected by light and
whose action potentials from axons to dendrites share features common to
plasma-lightning [157]-[159] [163]-[165]. It is also these neurons, axons, and den-
drites and their associated electromagnetic activity which link and “entangle” the
brain to the electromagnetic quantum continuum [166]-[170] which, some be-
lieve, is consciousness in its totality [171] [172].
Plasmas are electromagnetic entities and may possess a virtual plasma-based
nervous system that is not “physical” or “hard wired” but electromagnetic and
whose nerve network and circuitry is electric but may have incorporated charged
particles, dust, and debris, thereby creating stable interconnected electric circuits
and ganglia that function in a manner similar to the eukaryotic nervous system;
and which provides the foundation for intelligence and purposeful behavior.
However, a nervous system is not a perquisite for life; and even plants—which
are devoid of axons, dendrites and neurons—display behavior and an awareness
of their environment [173] [174].

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Figure 73. (Left) Networks of electromagnetic “rope” “cables” (Right) Dendrite and dendritic spine.

Figure 74. (Left) Neural networks, axons, dendrites, nerve cell. (Right) Magnetic flux ropes envelop Earth.

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Figure 75. Electromagnetic “virtual” ganglia “nervous systems”? Plasma electromagnetic neural “networks”? Comparing the nerv-
ous system of invertebrates with the internal sphericals of plasmoids and what appears to be “ganglia” and neural nerve nets. The
brain of eukaryotes is an electromagnetic organ and the nervous system functions according to and is governed by electromagnetic-
plasma principles. Plasmoids may not have a “physical” “hard wired” nervous system, but a virtual electromagnetic nervous system
whose nerve network and circuitry is purely electric but which may have incorporated charged particles, dust, and debris, thereby
creating stable interconnected electric circuits and ganglia that function in a manner similar to the eukaryotic nervous system.
29. Plasma Patterns Repeat
Pattern repeat in nature, even if only approximate: Fractals, spirals, vortexes,
meanders, waves, bubbles, spots, stripes, and so on, repeat; from snail shells to

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spiral galaxies [18]-[25] [136] [137]. Plasmas in the thermosphere also appear
to display patterns common on a solar and galactic level; e.g. comets, colliding
galaxies, and perhaps pulsars in respect to plasmodic oscillations in dim vs
bright light: except that pulsars spin whereas these oscillating plasmas shrink
and expand.
There is now abundant observational evidence that magnetic flux filamentation
occurs and is common at all astrophysical levels [10] [12] [31] [97] [99] and that
that generates structures on smaller and smaller scales from galaxies to stars to
planets, and perhaps to the scale of the nervous system. Magnetized plasma ropes,
cables, and filaments have been observed at the scale of superclusters intercon-
necting multiple galaxies, within clusters, along galactic spiral arms, within star
forming molecular clouds, within solar system, above the sun, in the magneto-
sphere/plasmasphere [121]-[123] [128] [175]-[177] and in the thermosphere as
documented in this report.
Plasmas in the thermosphere pulsate with light. Red giants also pulsate (e.g.
Betelgeuse, Mira A), as do binary stars and “variable stars” which may have regu-
lar or irregular pulsating patterns-possibly because there are electrical discharges
between nearby stars.
Plasmas (Floaters) form semi-conglomerates of semi-stationary plasmoids grouped
together, or in which one within a grouping will orbit around and make contact
with the others; and/or which are interconnected with luminous clouds of plasma.
Such grouping and behavior are also common at astronomical levels. Consider
Sirius, the “Dog star” in the constellation of Canis Major. It has a companion star,
Castor which in turn appears to be made up of six small stars that slowly revolve
around each other.
And then there are the thousands of galaxies that appear to be colliding. Plas-
mas also collide.
Arp [178]-[182] has documented and photographed numerous physical con-
nections between galaxies, including those with high vs low redshift values-con-
nected by a luminous bridge or tail, as well as hundreds of galaxies that appear to
be interacting.
Plasmas streak at varying velocities across the thermosphere, targeting and col-
liding with other plasmas and often leaving a plasma-comet-like tail in their wake;
whereas comet luminosity has been attributed to electrical excitement [14] [15]
Comet Halley, for example, flared up between the orbits of Saturn and Uranus-
which means the heat from the sun could not have been the trigger—and left in
its wake clouds of illuminated dust that stretched more than 300,000 KM. Be they
large or small, comets frequently display “non-gravitational” erratic motions, as
do plasma Hunters in the thermosphere. And comets produce filamented plasma
tails that may stretch for tens of millions of kilometers across the solar system
whereas Plasmas in the thermosphere produce filamented plasma tails that may
stretch tens of km.
Plasmas, therefore, display patterns that repeat.

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30. Properties of Life
    Defining life has always been challenging for both biologists and philosophers
    [183] [184] especially as it is a functional process and not easily defined in struc-
    tural terms [185]. This is a particularly acute dilemma with reference to the plas-
    moids as their “structure” is unclear and what can be observed shows no direct or
    obvious parallels with that of organic life forms and therefore, much of our dis-
    cussion of whether they are “living” relates to their observed functional properties
    and behavior.
    There are over 120 published definitions of “life” reflecting the lack of a current
    consensus [86]-[187] Nevertheless, there is a general consensus regarding the
    properties that an entity should possess to be regarded as “living”; i.e. the 7 prop-
    erties [186].
    First, is homeostasis, the regulation of an internal environment to maintain sta-
    bility. The plasmoids appear to be stable physical structures which and comprise
    an inner and outer layer as well as dust, particles, and debris, all of which differ in
    charge. Hence, there is the possibility, for example, of the processes of ion ex-
    change across these boundaries which could contribute to stability.
    Second, is “organization”, which in examples of terrestrial life forms is com-
    posed of one or more cells. Plasmoids do not appear to have a conventional “cellu-
    lar” structure but to have a more diffuse morphology, coupled with multiple layers,
    internal globular and helical structures, a nucleus, and an aggregations of subunits.
    Third, is “metabolism, the conversion of energy to make structures (anabolism)
    or its decay (catabolism). The plasmoids if bounded by a boundary layer and with
    an internal structure may build and maintain their structure using electromag-
    netic energy.
    Fourth, is “growth” which is defined as an irreversible change in size regardless
    of the method of measurement [188] and occurs when anabolic processes exceed
    those of catabolism. The size frequency distribution of plasmoid area in some time
    periods appears to be highly positively skewed and similar to that of growing ter-
    restrial organisms but it is difficult to determine whether this is attributable to
    actual variation in size among individuals and their possible growth or to different
    distances from the tether.
    Fifth, is “adaptation”, an evolutionary process in which terrestrial organisms
    change in structure and/or function to become better adapted to their environ-
    ments [189]. The hypothesis that dusty plasmoids have incorporated RNA/DNA
    into and the possibility that the nucleic acids have some function in controlling
    their existence, raises the possibility of genetic change and adaptation.
    Sixth, is “response to external stimuli” resulting in change in behavior. The
    plasmoids show a number of examples of this type of response, including attrac-
    tion to sources of EM pulses, aggregation in response to them, and their behavior
    as individuals.
    Seventh, is “reproduction” involving either a sexual or asexual process. This
    report provides examples of plasma mitosis, the ejection of clouds of plasma prior

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to and after collisions between plasmoids and the ejection of mini-plasmas; pro-
cesses that appear to represent a form of reproduction and subsequent growth.
Hence, although it is not possible to demonstrate that all seven characteristics of
life are present, this report provides sufficient information to conclude that plas-
moids likely constitute a “form of life”.
31. Speculation: Quantum Physics of Microtubles, Plasmoid
Macrotubles: Universal Consciousness
Based on the data presented in this report it can be argued that plasmas/plasmoids
in the thermosphere may represent a fourth domain of life and, as documented,
many exhibit complex life-like behaviors including mutual awareness and thus:
consciousness of their surroundings. Most physicists agree that over 90% (maybe
99%) of this universe consists of plasma; and according to Alfven [10]-[12] this
cosmic universal plasma has cellular layers and membranes. If plasmas/plasmoids
in the thermosphere are alive and conscious, then it could also be argued that 99%
of the universe is conscious.
On the other hand plasmas in the thermosphere appear to be distinct from the
surrounding universal plasma in that they have structure, form, shape, a nucleus,
and possibly a genome and virtual nervous system and engage in complex behav-
iors and interactions. However these latter plasmas also appear to be directly
linked to a surrounding plasmoid network of macro-tubular flux cables that also
resemble a virtual nervous system.
To speculate: Does the upper atmosphere of Earth (the thermosphere-plasmas-
phere) consist of plasmodic macrotubles that are interlinked with plasmas/plas-
moids and all of which are alive, sentient, and conscious? Might 99% of the uni-
verse also consist of macro-tubular flux cables which are also capable of con-
sciousness?
According to Orch OR theory [190]-[194] the quantum physics of conscious-
ness is made possible via the microtubles within each and every neuron which, via
action potentials, amplifies the electrical and magnetic oscillations which main-
tain quantum states (i.e. superposition) for at least 10−6 seconds. This brief mo-
ment of time is sufficient for quantum wave information to be transmitted by
neurons that share a common quantum wave function (so called Bose-Einstein
Condensates). Therefore, via these microtubules, wave information can be trans-
mitted to and from the brain by quantum wave resonance and which may cause
wave form collapse and decoherence making possible perception and conscious-
ness of what appears to be individual objects through conscious observation.
Therefore, quantum coherence or decoherence in these microtubles and col-
lapse of the wave function may enable consciousness to emerge and to become
conscious of consciousness-as predicted by quantum physics [195] and Orch OR
theory [190]-[194] the latter of which however, could be interpreted as indicating
that a brain per se is not necessary for consciousness [196].
It is well established that patterns repeat, such that similar forms exist from the

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micro to macro; from snail shells to hurricanes to spiral galaxies. Might the ma-
crotubles identified in the report represent a macro reproduction of microtubules?
Could an interaction between macro-tubles and micro-tubles generate or make
possible a universal consciousness, fragments of which give rise to human con-
sciousness and consciousness per se?
Consciousness is always a consciousness of something [195]-[199]. Conscious-
ness requires a duality in order to exist as a consciousness; something to be con-
scious of which then exists an object of consciousness [195] [196] [199]. As
summed up the Heisenberg [195], one of the founders of quantum mechanics:
“What we observe is not nature in itself but nature exposed to our method of
questioning the transition from the possible to the actual takes place during the
act of observation and the interaction of the object with the measuring device, and
thereby with the rest of the world through observation our knowledge of the sys-
tem has changed discontinuously, its mathematical representation has also under-
gone the discontinuous change and we speak of a quantum jump” [195]. In other
words, something comes into existence, by becoming conscious of it.
According to the Cophenhagen model of quantum physics, what is perceived
as form and substance are manifestations of dynamic patterns of energy and elec-
tromagnetic radiation that have no material reality [200]-[205]. Form and sub-
stance, that is, the “particles” and waves they are comprised of, exist only as prob-
abilities and only have probable existences and display tendencies to assume cer-
tain patterns of activity that is perceived as shape and form [200]-[211].
Because this electromagnetic activity is so frenzied, the rapidity of movement
obscures the fact that much of what we perceive are particular patterns of electro-
magnetic activity; a function of our perception of these dynamic interactions
within the frenzy of activity which is the quantum continuum. However, we can
only perceive what our senses can detect, and what we detect as form and shape
are really a mass of frenzied subatomic electromagnetic activity that is amenable
to detection by our senses and conscious mind at a particular moment in time,
which give rise to the impressions of shape and form. If we possessed additional
senses, or an increased sensory channel capacity, we would perceive yet other pat-
terns and other realities.
Heisenberg [195] cautioned, however, that the observer is not the creator of
reality, but instead merely registers, at a particular moment, certain isolated frag-
ments of activity within the continuum, the nature of which is shaped and deter-
mined by our senses. The act of observing, or measuring and interacting with the
environment creates an entangled state of energy in the quantum continuum de-
scribed as a “collapse of the wave function.”
Hence what we perceive as mass (shape, form, length, weight) are dynamic pat-
terns of energy which we selectively attend to and then perceive as stable and
static. And, we are perceiving only fragments of the quantum continuum. This
energy that makes up the object of our conscious perceptions, is but an aspect of
the electromagnetic continuum which has assumed a specific pattern that may be

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sensed and processed by our brain and in so doing becoming an object of con-
sciousness. Consciousness is entangled in the continuum [196] [212]-[215] andby
the act of observation or measurement creates a discontinuity within the quantum
continuum; i.e. a wave form collapse [195] [200]-[205]. As based on the Copen-
hagen theory of quantum mechanics what we perceive as reality are a manifesta-
tion of wave functions and alterations in patterns of activity within the quantum
continuum which are perceived by consciousness as discontinuous.
According to Heisenberg [195] because the physical world is relative to being
known by a “knower” (the observing consciousness), then the “knower” can in-
fluence the nature of the reality which is being observed through the act of meas-
urement and registration at a particular moment in time. And yet, what is ob-
served or measured at one moment can never include all the properties of the
object under observation [208] [209].
Moreover, wave form collapse is always a matter of probability [208] [209], and
is non-local, indeterministic and a consequence of conscious observation, meas-
urement, and entanglement. Consciousness and the act of measurement, there-
fore, are entangled with the quantum continuum and can alter the continuum and
the space-time manifold [195] [196] [200]-[205] [212]-[216]. Therefore, based on
quantum physics, it can be theorized that the universe—the quantum contin-
uum—is conscious of itself as the universe, and via consciousness created the uni-
verse which is conscious.
Penrose and Hameroff [190]-[194] regards the quantum world and the un-col-
lapsed wave function as having objective existence. They propose that the collapse
of the quantum wave function makes manifest that objective existence and that
the objective reality of the quantum world allows it to play a role in consciousness.
Therefore it is consciousness that collapses the wave function-a view basic to
quantum theory. Hameroff and Penrose sees consciousness as not only related to
the quantum level but also to space-time. According to Hameroff and Penrose
[190]-[194] the discovery of quantum vibrations in “microtubules” corroborates
their theory-though others disagree. Penrose and Hameroff argue that conscious-
ness depends on biologically orchestrated coherent quantum processes in collec-
tions of microtubules within neurons; and that these quantum processes correlate
with, and regulate, neuronal synaptic and membrane activity and which gives rise
to highly structured extracellular electromagnetic fields.
Presumably, it is these electromagnetic fields that link the brain, or rather, the
consciousness associated with neural activity to the collective consciousness of the
quantum continuum. If this theory is correct, then a brain, per se, is not necessary
for consciousness to exist, but rather, these electromagnetic fields and waves, and
quantum plasmodic tubular entanglements are in themselves, a form of or give
rise to or support consciousness.
As manifestations of the continuum, the implications are that every living or-
ganism is, at a minimum, sentient and capable of some form or degree of “con-
sciousness” depending on the power and strength of that organism’s electromag-

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netic field. This would explain why numerous experiments have demonstrated
that plants—although lacking a nervous system—are “aware” of their environ-
ment and not only sense but respond to changes in light, touch, chemicals, tem-
perature, and other stimuli around them, including threats of injury [173] [174].
Awareness, however, is not the same as “consciousness” [199]. For example,
one might be a passenger on a bus, focused on their cell phone, conscious of the
words and images displayed, while simultaneously aware but not conscious of
“sounds” “movement” other persons on the bus, cars going by, etc.—these extra-
neous experiences remain outside consciousness, but may become an object of
consciousness. Consider “blind sight.” Although there is no conscious perception
of visual stimuli due to destruction of the visual neocortex in the occipital lobe,
there remains an unconscious awareness which, via subcortical visual centers in
the thalamus and brainstem, may enable that “blind” person to walk around fur-
niture, grasp or even correctly “guess” at the name of an object held before them,
despite reporting no conscious visual perception of their external environment.
Speculation: The brain generates electromagnetic fields. The implications are
that plasma—which generates a powerful electromagnetic field—is at a minimum,
sentient and aware, and may achieve consciousness if the electromagnetic field is
sufficiently powerful. This would also imply that plasmoids in the thermosphere
may be capable of consciousness and that the sun is also sentient and conscious-a
belief held by numerous civilizations for thousands of years.
However, it is also reasonable to ask: lacking a nervous system—or at a mini-
mum (given ORCH OR) microtubles—how would it be possible for a plasmoid or
the sun to maintain something akin to “consciousness”?
32. How Consciousness Became the Universe and Created
Itself: The Universal Mind
Perhaps what could be considered a global “consciousness” is maintained by
plasma-that plasma and the plasma universe has consciousness, and what resem-
ble universal macrotubles flux chains of “rope cables” function as a quantum man-
ifestation of a virtual nervous system that is interlinked not only with the plasmas
of the thermosphere. To speculate: the plasma universe may be permeated with
flux chains and these interacting plasmas give rise to atoms, molecules, meteors,
asteroids, comets, moons, planets, suns, stars, the universe via consciousness
[196].
All of existence emerges from the quantum continuum and returns to the quan-
tum continuum.
In the upper atmosphere of Earth and perhaps in this solar system, these twisted
strands of macro-tubular plasma are related to and may be a manifestation of or
derive energy from solar electromagnetic activity. Like micro-tubules, these elec-
tromagnetic macro-tubule rope-chain cables have a tubular geometry and are
commonly detected on the surface of the sun and in the magnetosphere—the lat-
ter a function of the solar wind and interactions with the magnetic fields and mag-

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netic clouds produced by coronal mass ejections. These rope cables, therefore, are
electromagnetic plasmas that produce additional plasmas and which may also
function as a “virtual nervous system” in a manner similar to and which may link
the neuronal-axonal-dendritic nervous system of biological organisms and the
human brain.
Speculation. Possibly, this “virtual” electromagnetic “nervous system”—a
manifestation of quantum states and solar activity in this solar system—has con-
sciousness. Perhaps every solar system maintains a solar consciousness; and which
would imply that collectively, these “solar minds” would give rise to a galactic
consciousness; and thus, every planet, every solar system and every galaxy in this
universe has consciousness and which collectively give rise to the consciousness
of the universal mind that is the quantum continuum.
In the Copenhagen model, objects which are best described by the wave func-
tion and the probability function. “The reduction of wave packets occurs when
the transition is completed from the possible to the actual” [195]. Since the uni-
verse, as a collective, must have a wave function, then this universal wave function
would describe all the possible states of the universe and thus all possible universes
such that there must or may be multiple universes which exist simultaneously as
probabilities [217]-[221].
According to the Copenhagen mode of quantum physics, and as conceptualized
by Everett [221] and DeWit [219] [220] all probable universes underwent a tran-
sition from the probable to the actual, at the moment of conscious registration
which triggered a wave form collapse. Because the wave function of consciousness
is entangled with the quantum continuum it can cause a collapse of the wave func-
tion. If consciousness is energy, then the energy which is the quantum continuum
also has the probability of becoming conscious. If the universe, as a whole, is a
manifestation of the quantum continuum, as perceived by consciousness, then the
continuum could have become conscious of itself, and in achieving self-­con-
sciousness, created the universe. Therefore, this universe exists, because there is
consciousness of this universe. Therefore, consciousness must have come first.
First there was consciousness, then the universe became the universe via wave
form collapse.
But where did this “first” consciousness come from? The implications are that
the quantum continuum—this seething cauldron of electromagnetic activity—is
conscious: A collective quantum consciousness which is the universal mind.
However, consciousness is always consciousness of something. Therefore, it can
be said that the consciousness that is the quantum continuum became conscious
of its existence and thus “self-conscious” via a collapse of the wave function. such
that this electromagnetic potential universe came into existence via a collapse of
the wave function. Given that consiousness is always consciousness of something,
then prior to consciousness this universe did not and could not exist until it be-
came an object of consciousness. This duality in turn became a multiplicity (at-
oms, molecules, moons, planets, stars due to repeated collapses of the wave func-

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tion. Each of which could also form islands of conscious awareness interlinked
with the universal mind.
Because the quantum continuum has the potentiality of creating innumerable
probable universes it is also probable that this universe became this universe when
another universe became consious of this universe. However that would require
an infinite regression of universes becoming conscious of other probable uni-
verses. And the only answer to this paradox is that all probable universes—the
electromagnetic quantum continuum and the plasma universe in its entirety—
became conscious simultaneously thereby giving rise to the collective quantum
consciousness which is the universal mind.
Hence, via quantum consciousness of the electromagnetic continuum, this uni-
verse-out of all possible universes-underwent a transition “from the possible to
the actual” [195]. And by becoming conscious of its existence, the continuity of
“one” became a duality (wave particle/consciousness of consciousness). And via
an infinite progression of collapsing wave forms this duality became the many as
contemplated by the conscious human mind that itself is entangled and a frag-
ment of the plasma consciousness surrounding Earth, the solar consciousness, the
galactic consciousness, and the universal mind.
The first author of this report believes these findings imply that the micro-tu-
bules-neurons-neural networks that comprise the human brain and give rise to
human consciousness, may be acting as a quantum “receiver” and “transmitter”
that is entangled with and tunes into select channels and fragments of the collec-
tive universal mind.
33. Conclusions
The data presented here, combined with our previous reports, challenge all con-
ceptions of what constitutes “life,” the origins of life, consciousness, and Uniden-
tified Anomalous Phenomena [1]-[5] [112]. We have provided an extensive re-
view of the scientific literature and present pictorial evidence and the results of
two major statistical studies in support including detailed quantitative statistical
analysis of Plasmoid behavior and morphology.
It is widely accepted that plasma constitutes 99% if this universe and a “fourth
state of matter” whereas Alfven [10]-[12] considered plasmas to be the “first state
of matter.” As detailed in this article, and as supported by the results from two
extensive quantitative statistical studies reported here: plasmas in the thermo-
sphere demonstrate mutual awareness and engage in complex behavior and inter-
actions that appear life-like, purposeful and under intelligent control. Therefore,
plasmas may be alive and may be sentient and may represent a fourth domain, or
even a first domain of life that is mutually aware and conscious.
In this solar system, in the atmosphere above Earth, it can be assumed that the
plasmasphere (magnetosphere) has been in existence for at least 3.5 billion years
following the great bombardment of meteors, asteroids, comets, and oceans of ice.
We have hypothesized that over the ensuing billions of years, that dusty plasmas

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incorporated the shattered remnants of meteors and all the necessary ingredients
for the fashioning of RNA and DNA, and later incorporated the genomes of living
creatures that were cast into the upper atmosphere by powerful winds, hurricanes,
tornadoes and bolide impacts. These theoretical scenarios give rise to at least four
hypotheses: 1) Dusty plasmas are the first domain of life and incubated and syn-
thesized RNA, then DNA thus leading to the origins of life. 2) Dusty Plasma ac-
quired RNA/DNA after incorporating and encapsulating innumerable living or-
ganisms that were cast into the upper atmosphere. 3) Dusty plasmas were the first
to synthesis RNA and DNA, and upon acquiring and encapsulating organisms
propelled into the upper atmosphere, incorporated their DNA into the plasma
DNA via horizontal gene transfer. 4) Plasmas (plasmoids) are a form of “pre-life”
or an inorganic non-biological form of “life” which function according to the
same principles of electromagnetism that govern the functioning of living organ-
isms, be they plants or organisms whose behavior is controlled by a brain.
It has also been hypothesized that plasmoids-hunters in particular-may have
developed a virtual plasma-based nervous system. The brain of eukaryotes is an
electromagnetic organ and the nervous system functions according to and is gov-
erned by quantum and electromagnetic-plasma principles. However, we are not
proposing that plasmoid have a “physical” “hard wired” nervous system, but an
electromagnetic virtual nervous system that is electric but which and incorporated
charged particles, dust, and debris, thereby creating stable interconnected electric
circuits and ganglia that function in a manner similar to the eukaryotic nervous
system; and which provides the foundation for sentience, intelligence, and con-
sciousness.
The fact is, as documented in this and earlier reports and the results from major
statistical studies, plasmas in the thermosphere have diverse morphologies and
engage in complex behaviors and interactions. These include what may be com-
munication via a language of light with some plasmoids rapidly oscillating in
brightness and size as they approach vs pass by other plasmas. Then there are the
ejection of clouds of plasma in their wake, the formation of plasma bridges be-
tween one or more plasmas and plasma mitosis and the secretion of “emissary”
“messenger” plasmas that detach (repulse) and may then be drawn toward the
plasma that triggered the fissioning. This same principle may apply when two
plasma targets and crash into one another, or when plasmas merge, they separate.
Plasmas/plasmoids in the thermosphere are attracted to electro-magnetic activ-
ity and descend into lightning thunderstorms. Once in the lower atmosphere, they
likely engage in the same complex behaviors as documented in the thermosphere
and when observed or encountered, are commonly referred to as UFOs and UAP.
The data reported here and in our previous reports support the hypothesis that
plasmoids may have acquired a DNA-RNA based genome, plasma-like neural-like
networks, and are alive, mutually aware, and conscious. Further, the discovery of
vast plasma macro-tubule flux cables and neural-like networks in the thermo-
sphere, which may be giving birth to and to which plasmoids interact, gives rise

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to the hypothesis proposed by the first author of this report, that what has been
referred to as the plasmasphere may also be conscious, and that by extension, and
since approximately 99% of the universe may consist of plasma, that the sun, the
solar system, the galaxy, and the plasma universe may be conscious and collec-
tively generating a collective cosmic consciousness which encompasses and makes
possible what appears to be consciousness in living organism.
These theories and hypotheses, although supported by factual, photographic,
film, and quantitative data and evidence, are not conclusively proven facts. Each
of these plasmas may have different voltages, densities, temperatures and chemis-
try, which may rapidly change, and all of which generate electric currents and
charge separation, especially when they crash through and pierce each other.
Therefore, all these interactions and complex behaviors, including variable shape-
shifting morphologies, may be entirely due to differential electromagnetic activity
and negative vs positive electrical charges and push-pull magnetic repulsion and
attraction, as similar interactions have been observed between galaxies, pulsars,
binary stars, and “red giants.” On the other hand and by contrast, if the plasmas
in the thermosphere are alive, then it could be said that the plasma universe, the
electromagnetic quantum continuum, is also alive and conscious, giving rise to a
universal mind that functions according to plasma and quantum physics.
Admittedly, we cannot provide definitive, conclusive answers to any of these
questions. We have repeatedly proposed that additional research should encom-
pass the creation of a robotic-alien-hunter satellite designed to attract, film, and
possibly capture plasmoids in the thermosphere. Absent additional data, then, we
can only conclude that the data presented challenges all conceptions of UAP, the
nature of consciousness, and what constitutes “life” and how life began.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.
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